1957: Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
In 1957, Leon Festinger proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance, suggesting that people desire mental consistency and experience discomfort when their cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, attitudes) clash with each other or their actions. For instance, a smoker who knows smoking is harmful experiences dissonance.
1959: Festinger and Carlsmith's Experiment
The 1959 Festinger and Carlsmith experiment demonstrated the power of cognitive dissonance in persuasion. Participants performed a boring task and were paid either $1 or $20 to tell others it was enjoyable. Those paid $1, experiencing greater dissonance due to insufficient justification, were more persuasive, highlighting how dissonance drives self-persuasion.
1961: Milgram Experiment
Starting in 1961, the Milgram experiment explored obedience to authority. Participants, acting as "teachers," were told to administer electric shocks to "learners" (actors) for wrong answers. The study showed a disturbing willingness to inflict pain on others when instructed by an authority figure, even when seemingly causing harm.
1994: Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM)
Friestad and Wright introduced the Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM) in 1994. This model provides a framework for understanding how individuals acquire and utilize knowledge about persuasion tactics in everyday life, emphasizing the interaction between common knowledge and scientific understanding of persuasion.