The Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) was a protracted conflict between the Kuomintang (KMT) government of the Republic of China and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The war, marked by intermittent fighting, culminated in a decisive CCP victory, leading to the communist revolution and the establishment of the People's Republic of China on the mainland.
1911: The Xinhai Revolution and the Fall of the Qing Dynasty
The Xinhai Revolution took place in 1911, leading to the collapse of the Qing dynasty and marking the end of China's imperial rule.
1916: Yuan Shikai's Death and China's Descent into Warlordism
Following Yuan Shikai's demise in 1916, China plunged into an era of warlordism, characterized by fragmentation and power struggles among regional military leaders.
1922: CCP Membership Reaches 300
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) reached a membership of 300 in 1922.
1923: KMT Boasts 50,000 Members
In 1923, the Kuomintang (KMT) commanded a significant membership of 50,000 individuals.
1923: Sun-Joffe Manifesto and the First United Front
In a significant development in 1923, Sun Yat-sen and Soviet representative Adolph Joffe signed the Sun-Joffe Manifesto in Shanghai. This agreement solidified Soviet support for China's unification.
1923: Establishment of the Whampoa Military Academy
The Whampoa Military Academy was founded in 1923 with the purpose of training the future generation of Chinese military leaders.
1925: CCP Membership Grows to 1,500
By 1925, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had expanded its membership to 1,500.
1925: Death of Sun Yat-sen and the Split of the KMT
Following the death of Sun Yat-sen, the Kuomintang (KMT) experienced a division into left and right-wing factions in 1925.
March 1927: Second KMT Party Congress
The Kuomintang (KMT) held its second party congress in March 1927, where, with Soviet influence, resolutions were passed that opposed the Northern Expedition and aimed to limit Chiang Kai-shek's authority.
August 1927: Communist Uprising in Nanchang and the Formation of the Red Army
On August 1, 1927, the Communist Party initiated an uprising against the Nationalist government in Nanchang. This event marked the formation of the Red Army.
1927: First United Front Collapse and Nationalist Control
In 1927, the First United Front between the KMT and CCP collapsed during the Northern Expedition. The KMT gained control over a significant portion of China.
1927: Beginning of Mass Atrocities in Chinese Civil War
The Chinese Civil War, starting in 1927, witnessed widespread atrocities committed by both the Nationalists and Communists, resulting in millions of civilian deaths.
1927: Growing KMT-CCP Rivalry and Shifting Alliances
The rivalry between the KMT and CCP intensified in 1927, resulting in a split within the revolutionary ranks. The CCP and the left-wing KMT sought to relocate the KMT government to Wuhan, a city with substantial communist influence. However, Chiang Kai-shek and Li Zongren, whose armies had triumphed over warlord Sun Chuanfang, opted to advance eastward towards Jiangxi.
1927: Kuomintang's White Terror Campaign
Following the 1927 Shanghai massacre, the Kuomintang, as part of their White Terror campaign, killed hundreds of thousands, mainly peasants, in anti-communist purges. They targeted "non-traditional" women, subjecting them to brutal treatment and public displays of their mutilated bodies to instill fear.
June 1928: KMT Captures Beijing and Gains International Recognition
In a significant victory, the KMT successfully captured Beijing in June 1928, solidifying its control over a large portion of eastern China. This triumph garnered the Nanjing central government, established by the KMT, swift international recognition as the sole legitimate government of China.
December 1930: Communist Execution of Futian Battalion Members
During the Futian incident in December 1930, communist forces executed thousands of members of the Futian battalion following a mutiny against Mao Zedong.
1930: Central Plains War Erupts
The Central Plains War, an internal conflict within the KMT, began in 1930. It was initiated by Feng Yuxiang, Yan Xishan, and Wang Jingwei.
1931: Communist Violence in Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet Begins
Beginning in 1931, the communist authorities in the Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet initiated a campaign of violence against civilians to enforce their policies and prevent defections to the KMT. This involved mass executions, land seizures, and forced labor.
1932: KMT's Fourth Encirclement Campaign Begins
In 1932, the KMT launched its fourth encirclement campaign against CCP areas, aiming to eliminate remaining CCP strongholds.
1933: KMT's Fourth Encirclement Campaign Falters
The KMT's fourth encirclement campaign, despite some initial success, faltered in 1933 as they faced difficulties in consolidating their positions within the CCP's territory.
October 1934: CCP Breaks Through KMT Encirclement, Beginning the Long March
In October 1934, the CCP exploited gaps in the KMT's blockhouse lines, breaking through the encirclement and beginning the Long March, a strategic retreat to evade KMT forces.
1934: KMT's Fifth Encirclement Campaign and Blockhouse Strategy
Chiang Kai-shek launched the fifth encirclement campaign in 1934, employing a blockhouse strategy to surround and cut off supplies to the CCP's Jiangxi Soviet region.
1934: Communist Violence in Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet Continues
The brutal campaign of violence against civilians in the Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet under communist control continued until 1934, resulting in a significant population decline due to killings, forced labor, and other harsh conditions.
November 1935: Mao Zedong Solidifies Leadership During the Long March
In November 1935, during the Long March, Mao Zedong officially assumed leadership of the Red Army, solidifying his position as the Party's preeminent leader.
1935: Population Decline in Communist-Controlled Jiangxi
By 1935, the population of the communist-controlled area in Jiangxi had decreased substantially, with a large portion attributed to killings, suicides, and other deaths linked to the communists' policies and actions.
December 1936: Xi'an Incident Forces KMT-CCP Truce
On December 12, 1936, the Xi'an Incident occurred, leading to Chiang Kai-shek's detention by Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng, forcing a truce between the KMT and CCP and the formation of the Second United Front against Japan.
1936: Zhou Enlai's Efforts to Form a United Front
Throughout 1936, Zhou Enlai engaged in diplomatic efforts, persuading warlords Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng to form a united front with the CCP against the growing Japanese threat.
1937: Japan Launches Full-Scale Invasion of China
Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937, leading to the Second Sino-Japanese War and shifting the focus of both the KMT and CCP.
1937: Second Sino-Japanese War and Second United Front Formation
The Second Sino-Japanese War began in 1937, leading to the formation of the Second United Front between the KMT and CCP to fight against Japan.
December 1940: Chiang Kai-shek Orders New Fourth Army Evacuation
Clashes escalated, and in December 1940, Chiang Kai-shek ordered the CCP's New Fourth Army to evacuate Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces, citing provocations and harassment of KMT forces.
1941: New Fourth Army Ambushed, Ending the Second United Front
In 1941, the New Fourth Army was ambushed by KMT forces during its evacuation, resulting in significant casualties and effectively ending the Second United Front.
1941: International Efforts to Prevent Civil War
International concern grew over the CCP-KMT conflict. In 1941, the United States and the Soviet Union, albeit with their own interests, urged both sides to avoid a civil war that would benefit Japan.
1943: Propaganda Warfare and Growing Tensions
Despite a superficial peace in 1943, tensions simmered as Chiang Kai-shek's "China's Destiny" challenged the CCP's legitimacy, while the CCP labeled his regime as fascist, highlighting the deep ideological divide.
1944: Japan's Operation Ichi-Go Weakens KMT Forces
In 1944, Japan launched Operation Ichi-Go, its final major offensive, targeting the KMT and significantly weakening their forces while the CCP, employing guerrilla tactics, minimized losses and expanded its influence.
October 1945: Chongqing Negotiations and the Double Tenth Agreement
Peace talks between the KMT and CCP were held in Chongqing from August to October 1945, resulting in the Double Tenth Agreement. Despite emphasizing peaceful reconstruction, the agreement yielded limited concrete results, and clashes persisted.
November 1945: Soviet Occupation and KMT Return to Manchuria
In November 1945, following the Soviet Union's occupation of Manchuria after defeating the Japanese Kwantung Army, Chiang Kai-shek realized his forces were insufficient to prevent a CCP takeover. He negotiated a delayed Soviet withdrawal, aiming to move his troops into the region. However, the Soviets dismantled Manchurian industries, hindering KMT efforts. The US airlifted KMT troops to key cities in North China, but the countryside remained under CCP influence. On November 15, 1945, the KMT initiated a campaign to curb the CCP's growing power, but corruption within the KMT benefited the Communists.
November 1945: KMT Advance and Communist Offensive
By November 26, 1945, Chiang Kai-shek's forces had advanced to Chinchow (Jinzhou), facing minimal resistance. Subsequently, the Communists launched a successful offensive on the Shandong Peninsula, capturing most of it except for areas under US control.
1945: Start of Recorded Casualties
The period between 1945 and 1949 witnessed significant casualties on both sides of the Chinese Civil War, marking a tragic chapter in the conflict.
1945: Communist Party Growth and Soviet Assistance
The Communist Party's power significantly increased by the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945. Their forces grew to 3.2 million, including militia, and their "Liberated Zone" encompassed one-quarter of China's territory and one-third of its population. The Soviet Union provided the CCP with captured Japanese weapons, supplies, and control of Northeast China.
1945: Soviet Support for the CCP
In 1945, under Stalin's directive, Marshal Rodion Malinovsky provided Mao Zedong's forces with a significant amount of captured Japanese weaponry.
1945: Post-War Economic Collapse in ROC Areas
Following 1945, areas under ROC control experienced economic turmoil due to hyperinflation and failed price controls by the ROC government, leading to the devaluation of the Gold Yuan in late 1948 and a loss of support from the middle class.
January 1946: Temporary Halt to Major Clashes
While tensions remained high, a fragile agreement in January 1946 led to a temporary halt in large-scale confrontations between CCP and KMT forces, offering a brief respite from open warfare.
March 1946: Soviet Withdrawal Delays and CCP Advance
Despite Chiang Kai-shek's requests, the Soviet Red Army, under Marshal Rodion Malinovsky, continued to delay their withdrawal from Manchuria in March 1946. Malinovsky secretly instructed CCP forces to move into areas vacated by the Soviets, contributing to the outbreak of full-scale war. On March 27, Soviet diplomats proposed a joint industrial development venture with the Nationalist Party in Manchuria.
June 1946: Outbreak of Full-Scale Civil War
A truce between the CCP and KMT collapsed in June 1946, leading to the eruption of full-scale war on June 26, 1946. China entered a state of civil war that would persist for over three years.
July 1946: KMT Offensive in North China
Following the failure of postwar negotiations, civil war resumed between the Nationalist government and the Communist Party. On July 20, 1946, Chiang Kai-shek launched a major assault on Communist-held territories in North China, deploying a substantial force of 1.6 million troops.
1946: Nationalist Persecution of Dissidents
From 1946 onwards, the Nationalist government, with support from the Sino-American Cooperative Organization, engaged in the arrest, torture, and execution of political dissidents.
1946: Mao Zedong's Push for Radical Land Reform
In 1946, Mao Zedong advocated for a return to radical policies, particularly land reform, aiming to mobilize China against the landlord class while protecting middle peasants. This ignited intense conflict over land redistribution.
March 1947: KMT Capture of Yan'an
In March 1947, the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by capturing Yan'an, the capital of the Yan'an Soviet.
June 1947: CCP Counteroffensive and Advance
The Communists swiftly counterattacked the KMT's advance. On June 30, 1947, CCP forces crossed the Yellow River and moved into the Dabie Mountains region, restoring and developing the Central Plain. Simultaneously, Communist forces launched counteroffensives in Northeastern China, North China, and East China.
October 1947: Outline Land Law Intensifies Land Reform
The Outline Land Law, enacted in October 1947, intensified the land reform campaign, leading to the brutal killing of many landlords, further escalating the conflict between the CCP and landowners.
April 1948: CCP Advance and Capture of Luoyang
The capture of substantial KMT units provided the CCP with crucial military equipment, including tanks and heavy artillery, enabling them to conduct offensive operations south of the Great Wall. By April 1948, the CCP captured the city of Luoyang, severing the KMT army's connection to Xi'an.
September 1948: CCP Capture of Jinan and Shandong Province
On September 24, 1948, following a fierce battle, the CCP captured Jinan and gained control of Shandong province.
November 1948: Beginning of the Pingjin Campaign
The Pingjin Campaign commenced on November 21, 1948, marking the start of the Communist effort to conquer northern China.
1948: CCP Capture of Northeast China
By late 1948, the CCP had captured the crucial northern cities of Shenyang and Changchun, securing control of Northeast China after facing significant challenges. The decisive Liaoshen Campaign led to the surrender of the KMT's elite New 1st Army following a devastating six-month siege of Changchun, resulting in over 150,000 civilian deaths from starvation.
1948: Gold Yuan Devaluation
The sharp devaluation of the Gold Yuan in late 1948 significantly weakened the ROC government and contributed to their loss of support in urban areas.
January 1949: CCP Victory in the Pingjin Campaign
The Pingjin Campaign concluded on January 31, 1949, resulting in the Communist conquest of northern China after 64 days of fighting. The PLA captured key cities like Zhangjiakou and Tianjin, but suffered heavy casualties.
June 1949: ROC's Closure of Mainland China Ports
In June 1949, the ROC implemented a closure of all mainland Chinese ports and employed its navy to intercept foreign vessels, aiming to disrupt trade and exert pressure on the Communist-controlled mainland. This blockade severely impacted north-south trade in mainland China, which relied heavily on sea routes due to an underdeveloped railway system. It also caused significant hardship for mainland Chinese fishermen.
October 1949: Proclamation of the People's Republic of China
On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China with its capital in Beijing.
December 1949: ROC Government in Taiwan and Continued Assertion of Authority
Following the PRC's unsuccessful attempt to capture the ROC-controlled island of Quemoy in the Battle of Kuningtou, the PLA's advance toward Taiwan was halted. In December 1949, Chiang Kai-shek declared Taipei the provisional capital of the Republic of China, maintaining that his government was the sole legitimate authority in China.
December 1949: KMT Retreat to Taiwan and Continued Resistance
Chiang Kai-shek and approximately two million Nationalist soldiers retreated from mainland China to Taiwan in December 1949 as the PLA advanced into Sichuan province. Though isolated pockets of Nationalist resistance remained, most resistance crumbled after the fall of Chengdu on December 10, 1949, with some holdouts persisting in the far south.
1949: End of Nationalist Persecution of Dissidents
The Nationalist government's campaign of persecuting political dissidents continued until 1949, marking a dark period of political repression.
1949: Communist Victory in the Chinese Civil War
The year 1949 marked the culmination of the Chinese Civil War, with the Communists emerging victorious.
1949: Huaihai Campaign and CCP Control of East-Central China
The Huaihai Campaign, spanning late 1948 and early 1949, resulted in the CCP securing east-central China. A large number of KMT troops defected to the CCP during these conflicts. The outcomes of these battles proved decisive in determining the military outcome of the civil war.
1949: Kuomintang Supports "Homecoming Legion"
In response to the communist land reforms, the Kuomintang supported the formation of the "Homecoming Legion." This group, composed of landlords, forcibly recruited peasants, and former communist prisoners, waged guerrilla warfare against CCP forces and suspected collaborators until the civil war's end in 1949.
1949: CCP Advance and KMT Retreat to Taiwan
Having achieved decisive victories in the Liaoshen, Huaihai, and Pingjin campaigns, the CCP had significantly weakened the Nationalist forces. Despite Stalin's preference for a coalition government, Mao Zedong initiated the Yangtze River Crossing Campaign on April 21, 1949. They captured Nanjing, the KMT capital, on April 23. The KMT government retreated, ultimately fleeing to Taiwan on December 7. By late 1949, the PLA pursued KMT remnants in southern China, leaving only Tibet unconquered.
1949: End of Mass Atrocities in Chinese Civil War
By 1949, the Chinese Civil War had resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.8 to 3.5 million people due to atrocities committed by both the Nationalist and Communist forces.
January 1950: US Non-Intervention Policy and Truman's Announcement
In January 1950, US President Truman declared a policy of non-intervention in the Taiwan Strait, aiming to avoid entanglement in the Chinese Civil War and potentially exploit tensions between China and the Soviet Union.
April 1950: Communist Conquest of Hainan Island
In April 1950, Communist forces successfully captured Hainan Island, adding to their string of amphibious victories.
May 1950: Communist Conquest of Zhoushan Island
The Communists achieved another victory in May 1950 by seizing Zhoushan Island, situated off the Zhejiang coast.
June 1950: Outbreak of the Korean War and US Policy Shift
The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 dramatically altered the geopolitical landscape. Consequently, the US shifted its policy and dispatched the Seventh Fleet to the Taiwan Strait, aiming to contain potential Communist expansion.
August 1950: Communist Capture of the Wanshan Islands
By August 1950, the Communists secured control over the Wanshan Islands, located off the Guangdong coast, further solidifying their dominance.
1950: Communist Control of Mainland China and KMT Retreat to Burma
By 1950, the CCP had effectively established control over mainland China. However, a contingent of around 3,000 KMT soldiers escaped to Burma, where they continued to launch guerrilla attacks into southern China.
1951: CCP Control Extends
The CCP's control expanded further in 1951, encompassing the entire mainland with the exception of Kinmen and Matsu Islands.
February 1952: UN Resolution 505 Condemns Soviet Union
In February 1952, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 505, condemning the Soviet Union for its role in supporting the CCP during the Chinese Civil War, a move that the ROC argued violated the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance.
1953: International Pressure and US Policy Shift
Responding to the Burmese government's appeal to the UN in 1953, the US changed its stance and pressured the ROC to withdraw its loyalist forces from Burma.
September 1954: First Taiwan Strait Crisis Begins
September 1954 marked the beginning of the First Taiwan Strait Crisis, a tense standoff between the PRC and ROC that involved military clashes and heightened tensions in the region. The crisis was ignited by the PRC's shelling of Kinmen.
1954: Partial Withdrawal of KMT Forces from Burma
By the end of 1954, a significant portion of KMT soldiers, nearly 6,000, withdrew from Burma, and their leader, Li Mi, officially disbanded the army.
1954: Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries
In 1954, the PRC initiated the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, targeting remaining KMT forces and individuals deemed disloyal. Tragically, millions were arrested, imprisoned, or executed, including former KMT officials, businesspeople, and intellectuals suspected of harboring anti-communist sentiments.
January 1955: PRC Captures Yijiangshan Islands and US Congress Passes Formosa Resolution
In January 1955, the PRC's capture of the Yijiangshan Islands escalated the First Taiwan Strait Crisis. In response, the US Congress passed the Formosa Resolution, granting the US president authority to defend the ROC's offshore islands.
August 1958: Second Taiwan Strait Crisis Begins
The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis erupted in August 1958, characterized by air and naval confrontations between the PRC and ROC forces. The crisis involved intense artillery exchanges, with the PRC shelling Kinmen and the ROC retaliating against Xiamen.
1958: Conclusion of the Kuomintang Islamic Insurgency
The Kuomintang Islamic Insurgency, which began in 1950, came to an end in 1958. This insurgency involved KMT remnants fighting against the CCP in southwestern China.
October 1971: PRC Admitted to UN, ROC Expelled
In October 1971, a significant shift occurred in the international recognition of the PRC. The United Nations General Assembly voted to admit the PRC and expel the ROC, despite the latter being a founding member and permanent member of the Security Council. This decision reflected the changing geopolitical landscape and the PRC's growing influence.
1984: PRC and ROC De-escalation and Growing Cross-Strait Relations
In 1984, the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) began to de-escalate hostilities, fostering diplomatic relations and boosting cross-straits trade and investment.
May 1991: ROC Renounces Reunification Efforts
Under President Lee Teng-hui, the ROC renounced the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion in May 1991, signaling an end to the Kuomintang's goal of retaking mainland China.
1991: ROC Declares End to Hostilities
The ROC officially declared the state of war over in 1991, marking a significant step towards ending the Chinese Civil War, though no formal agreement was signed.
1995: Third Taiwan Strait Crisis Begins
The Third Taiwan Strait Crisis unfolded in 1995, sparked by Taiwanese President Lee Teng-hui's visit to the United States and the US recognition of Lee as a representative of Taiwan. The PRC responded with military exercises, aiming to deter Taiwanese voters from supporting Lee in the upcoming 1996 election.
1996: Lee Teng-hui Wins Election and Crisis De-escalates
Despite PRC's attempts to influence the election, Lee Teng-hui secured victory in 1996. The deployment of two US aircraft carriers to the region during the crisis contributed to the eventual de-escalation of tensions.
2005: Pan-Blue Visit
Despite existing tensions, cross-strait ties continued to strengthen, exemplified by the Pan-Blue visit in 2005.
2008: Warming Relations Under President Ma Ying-jeou
The election of pro-mainland President Ma Ying-jeou in 2008 led to significantly improved relations between Taipei and Beijing, including high-level exchanges between semi-official diplomatic bodies.
2009: Direct Air Links Established
In 2009, despite the Taiwan Strait remaining a point of potential conflict, regular direct air links were established between Taipei and Beijing.
April 2022: Nancy Pelosi's Planned Visit to Taiwan Postponed
Initially planned for April 2022, Nancy Pelosi's visit to Taiwan was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the pandemic's global impact and influence on international affairs.
August 2022: Nancy Pelosi Visits Taiwan and PRC Conducts Military Exercises
US House Speaker Nancy Pelosi's visit to Taiwan in August 2022 triggered a strong reaction from the PRC, which launched unprecedented military exercises around the island. These exercises, involving live-fire drills, took place in six zones encircling Taiwan, raising concerns about potential escalation and disruption to international waterways and air routes.