The Second Sino-Japanese War, fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from 1937 to 1945, was a major theater of World War II. Considered the largest Asian conflict of the 20th century, it's sometimes referred to as the start of World War II in Asia. The war, known for the brutal atrocities committed by Japanese forces against Chinese civilians, is often called "the Asian Holocaust." In Japan, it's known as the Second China–Japan War, while in China, it's called the Chinese War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression.
1901: Boxer Protocol
The violence that unfolded during the Tongzhou Mutiny in 1937, particularly against civilians, drew comparisons to the events surrounding the Boxer Protocol in 1901, highlighting the historical tensions and atrocities committed during this period.
1905: Japan Secures Victory in the Russo-Japanese War
Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 had significant geopolitical consequences, particularly in Manchuria. As a result of their triumph, Japan gained substantial territorial concessions in the region, strengthening their position and influence over Chinese affairs.
1905: Japan Defeats Russia in the Russo-Japanese War
Japan's victory over the Russian Empire in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 marked a turning point in East Asian power dynamics. This victory solidified Japan's status as a rising military power and had lasting consequences for the region, contributing to the circumstances leading to the Second Sino-Japanese War.
1911: Xinhai Revolution Erupts in China
The Xinhai Revolution, which erupted in 1911, aimed to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and establish a republic in China. This revolution marked a pivotal moment in Chinese history, ending centuries of imperial rule and paving the way for significant political and social changes.
March 1912: Establishment of the Beiyang Government
Following the Xinhai Revolution, which overthrew the Qing Dynasty, the Beiyang Government, led by Yuan Shikai, was established in March 1912. This event marked a significant shift in Chinese history, from imperial rule to a new era of republicanism, albeit a turbulent one.
1913: Assassination of Song Jiaoren
The assassination of Song Jiaoren, a prominent parliamentary leader, in 1913 had significant repercussions for China's nascent republic. Widely believed to have been orchestrated by Yuan Shikai, the assassination undermined democratic processes and fueled political instability in the years leading up to the Second Sino-Japanese War.
1915: Japan Extracts Economic Concessions from China
Capitalizing on its strengthened position in Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War, Japan exerted pressure on Yuan Shikai, the president of the Republic of China, in 1915. This maneuvering led to Japan securing significant economic privileges in the region, further expanding their control over key industries and resources.
June 1916: Death of Yuan Shikai and the Rise of the Beiyang Government
In June 1916, Yuan Shikai, who had attempted to restore the monarchy in China, died. Following his death, the Beiyang Army leadership took control of the country, leading to a period of fragmentation and instability.
November 1918: Armistice of 11 November 1918
The Armistice of 11 November 1918, marking the end of World War I, influenced the chosen date and time for the Japanese surrender in 1945. The repetition of "eleventh" held symbolic weight.
1926: Kuomintang Launches the Northern Expedition
In 1926, the Kuomintang (KMT), with limited support from the Soviet Union, initiated the Northern Expedition. This military campaign aimed to unify China and put an end to the rule of regional warlords that had plagued the country since the fall of the Qing dynasty.
1927: Imperial Eastern Region Conference
In line with the 1921 conference, the Imperial Eastern Region Conference held in 1927 reiterated Japan's commitment to maintaining its position as the leading power in Northeast China. This unwavering stance on maintaining dominance in the region further contributed to the escalating tensions with China.
1927: Shanghai Massacre and CCP Suppression
Following the Shanghai Massacre of 1927, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) found itself engaged in open conflict with the Nanjing government. The Kuomintang government, prioritizing internal stability over external threats, adopted a policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance." This approach led them to focus on suppressing the CCP through successive Encirclement Campaigns.
1928: Zhang Zuolin's Retreat and Assassination
In 1928, as the National Revolutionary Army advanced towards Beijing, Zhang Zuolin, a powerful warlord, decided to retreat to Manchuria. However, he was assassinated by the Kwantung Army, a Japanese military force, during his retreat. His son, Zhang Xueliang, succeeded him as the leader of the Fengtian clique in Manchuria.
1928: Jinan Incident
In 1928, the Jinan incident occurred, marked by armed clashes between the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) and the Japanese military in Jinan, Shandong province. The incident resulted in the deaths of numerous Chinese officials and civilians, significantly escalating tensions between the Chinese Nationalist government and Japan.
1928: Kuomintang's Northern Expedition Concludes
The Kuomintang's Northern Expedition, which began in 1926, concluded in 1928. This marked a significant step towards the nominal reunification of China under a single government.
November 1929: Conflict over the Chinese Eastern Railroad
The conflict over the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER) from July to November 1929 further heightened tensions between China and Japan in the Northeast, ultimately contributing to the Mukden Incident and the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Soviet Red Army's victory over Zhang Xueliang's forces reasserted Soviet control over the CER, exposing weaknesses in the Chinese military that did not go unnoticed by Japanese Kwantung Army officers.
1929: Soviet Red Army Victory and its Impact on Japanese Policy
The Soviet Red Army's victory in 1929 over Chinese forces in the conflict over the Chinese Eastern Railroad sent shockwaves through Japan. This victory challenged Japan's strategic ambitions in Manchuria, prompting a reevaluation of its policy in the region.
1930: Central Plains War Erupts in China
The Central Plains War, a large-scale civil war, erupted in China in 1930. This conflict, involving various regional commanders who had previously allied with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition, presented a significant challenge to the Nanjing government led by Chiang Kai-shek.
September 1931: Mukden Incident
In September 1931, the Japanese orchestrated the Mukden Incident, a fabricated event used to justify their invasion of Manchuria. This event marked a significant escalation of Japanese aggression and is often considered the precursor to the Second Sino-Japanese War.
September 1931: Mukden Incident and Japanese Invasion of Manchuria
In September 1931, the Mukden Incident took place, marking a pivotal turning point that led directly to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japanese soldiers orchestrated the bombing of the Southern Manchurian Railroad, using it as a pretext to justify a military response in "self-defense." Japan accused China of violating its rights and interests in Manchuria, citing numerous alleged infringements as justification for their actions.
September 1931: Japanese Invasion of Manchuria
The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in September 1931 is considered by some Chinese historians as the true start of the Second Sino-Japanese War. This perspective emphasizes the significance of the conflict in northeast China and frames the period from 1931 to 1937 as a "partial" war, leading up to the "total" war from 1937 to 1945.
1931: Mukden Incident and its Aftermath
Following the Mukden Incident in 1931, public opinion in China heavily criticized Zhang Xueliang, the leader of Manchuria, for not resisting the Japanese invasion, despite the Kuomintang government sharing responsibility for this policy. Despite losing Manchuria, Zhang and his Northeast Army were then tasked with suppressing the Chinese Communist Party's Red Army, resulting in significant losses for Zhang's forces who received no support from Chiang Kai-shek.
1932: Establishment of the Puppet State of Manchukuo
Following five months of intense fighting, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. Puyi, the last emperor of China, was installed as the nominal ruler, solidifying Japan's control over the region and further demonstrating its imperial ambitions in East Asia.
1932: January 28 Incident and Demilitarization of Shanghai
The January 28 Incident, a battle between Chinese and Japanese forces in 1932, resulted in the demilitarization of Shanghai. This agreement forbade the Chinese from stationing troops in their own city, demonstrating the extent of Japanese influence and aggression in the region.
1933: Japanese Attack on the Great Wall Region and the Tanggu Truce
In 1933, Japanese forces launched an attack on the Great Wall region of China. Following the conflict, the Tanggu Truce was established, granting Japan control over Rehe province and establishing a demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and the Beijing-Tianjin region. This move aimed to create a buffer zone separating Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state, from the Chinese Nationalist government based in Nanjing.
1933: Wheat and Cotton Loan
The 1933 Wheat and Cotton Loan mainly benefited American producers, while aiding to a smaller extent both Chinese and Japanese alike.
1933: Tanggu Truce and British-Chinese Relations
After the Tanggu Truce of 1933, Chiang Kai-Shek maintained friendly yet uneasy relations with the British government due to foreign concessions, with both governments urging for an agreement to prevent war.
1934: John Scott's Report on Anti-Japanese and Anti-Bolshevik Sentiment in Gansu
In 1934, John Scott observed strong anti-Japanese and anti-Bolshevik feelings among the Muslims of Gansu. He noted the influence of Muslim generals like Ma Fuxiang, Ma Qi, Ma Anliang, and Ma Bufang, the chairman of Qinghai province.
1934: Silver Purchase Act
In 1934, the Silver Purchase Act signed by President Roosevelt caused chaos in China's economy which helped the Japanese war effort.
1935: Japanese Pressure and Agreements in Northern China
In 1935, Japan exerted significant pressure on China, leading to the signing of the He–Umezu Agreement and the Chin–Doihara Agreement. These agreements severely restricted the activities of the Chinese Nationalist government (KMT) in Hebei and Chahar provinces, effectively forcing their withdrawal from much of northern China.
May 1936: Establishment of the Mongol Military Government
With Japanese support, the Mongol Military Government was established in May 1936 within the Chahar province. Japan provided substantial military and economic assistance to this puppet government.
December 1936: Xi'an Incident and United Front Formation
In December 1936, Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek to force an end to the conflict between the KMT and CCP. The KMT agreed to a temporary ceasefire in the Chinese Civil War and a United Front with the Communists against Japan in exchange for Chiang's release.
1936: Formation of the Second United Front
Despite their ongoing civil war, the Chinese Communist Party and the Nationalist Party formed the Second United Front in late 1936. This alliance aimed to unite the two factions against the common threat of Japanese invasion, signifying a brief period of cooperation.
1936: Chinese-American Pilots Train in Germany
In 1936, a group of Chinese-American volunteer pilots were sent to Lagerlechfeld Air Base in Germany for advanced training in aerial gunnery. This training was facilitated by the Chinese Air Force in preparation for the looming threat of war with the Empire of Japan.
1936: US Exports to Japan Increase
War essentials exports from the United States to Japan increased by 124% along with a general increase of 41% of all American exports from 1936 to 1937 when Japan invaded China. Japan's war economy was fueled by exports to the United States at over twice the rate immediately preceding the war.
July 1937: Japanese Government Terms Conflict as "The China Incident"
When Japan launched its full-scale invasion of China in July 1937, the Japanese government used the term "The China Incident" to downplay the severity of the conflict. This terminology reflected Japan's attempts to control the narrative and minimize international condemnation.
July 1937: Marco Polo Bridge Incident
On the night of July 7, 1937, an exchange of fire between Chinese and Japanese troops near the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing marked a pivotal moment that escalated into a full-scale war.
July 1937: Marco Polo Bridge Incident
The Marco Polo Bridge Incident, marked by a firefight between Japanese and Chinese troops on July 1937, ignited the full-scale Japanese invasion of China. This incident, sparked by the disappearance of a Japanese soldier, is widely considered the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific theater of World War II.
July 1937: Tongzhou Mutiny
On July 29, 1937, approximately 5,000 troops from the East Hebei Army mutinied in Tongzhou, attacking the Japanese garrison and resulting in the deaths of Japanese military personnel and civilians. This event significantly swayed public opinion in Japan towards war.
August 1937: Incident at Hongqiao Military Airport
On August 9, 1937, an incident at Hongqiao military airport, involving the shooting of two Japanese officers attempting to enter the facility, heightened tensions. Japan demanded the withdrawal of all Chinese forces from Shanghai, a demand firmly rejected by China, further escalating the conflict.
August 1937: Intensification of Fighting in Shanghai
On August 14, 1937, Chinese forces under the command of Zhang Zhizhong received orders to neutralize Japanese strongholds in Shanghai, leading to fierce street combat.
August 1937: Fall of Beijing and Tianjin
Following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Japanese forces swiftly captured the Chinese cities of Beijing and Tianjin in July and August of 1937.
August 1937: Battle of Shanghai Begins
August 13, 1937, witnessed the outbreak of the Battle of Shanghai, marked by Kuomintang soldiers' attack on Japanese Marine positions. The Japanese response involved army troops and marines entering the city with naval gunfire support.
September 1937: Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
In September 1937, after Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, The Soviet Union signed the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and approved Operation Zet, to avoid fighting a two-front war with Japan and Germany.
September 1937: Introduction of A5M "Claude" Fighters and Japanese Air Superiority
The arrival of advanced A5M "Claude" fighters in the skies over the Shanghai-Nanjing theater of operations, beginning in September 1937, provided the Japanese with a significant edge in airpower, enabling them to gain a degree of air superiority.
November 1937: Japanese Capture of Northern Shanxi
Between September and November 1937, Japanese forces successfully captured Northern Shanxi, expanding their control over key areas in China.
December 1937: Fall of Nanjing and the Nanjing Massacre
December 1937 marked the fall of Nanjing, the capital of the KMT government, to Japanese forces. The ensuing weeks witnessed horrific war atrocities, including widespread murder, rape, looting, and destruction, now widely known as the Nanjing Massacre.
December 1937: Public Opinion Turns Against Japan
From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay and the Nanjing Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan.
1937: Outbreak of War and International Support
With the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the Soviet Union emerged as a primary supporter of China's resistance against Japan, formalized through the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, which lasted until 1941. Prior to the full-scale war, Germany, since the Weimar Republic, had been instrumental in providing training and equipment to elite units within the National Revolutionary Army of China. Notably, German assistance included aerial combat training conducted by the Luftwaffe for select pilots of the pre-Nationalist Air Force of China. Beyond German support, various other foreign powers, including the United States, Italy, and Japan itself, had contributed to the training and equipping of different air force units in pre-war China.
1937: Creation of the "Sword March"
The courageous resistance displayed by the Chinese 29th Army in 1937, despite their inadequate equipment, inspired the composition of the "Sword March." This patriotic song, with slightly modified lyrics, became the official marching cadence for the National Revolutionary Army and popularized the derogatory term "guizi" to refer to the Japanese invaders.
1937: US Support for China
The United States, beginning in 1937, voiced strong support for China and urged Japan to withdraw its forces. This support, however, initially remained largely rhetorical. The US continued its economic engagement with Japan, supplying vital resources like oil and scrap metal.
1937: US Exports to Japan Increase
America exported far more raw material to Japan than to China in the years 1937–1940. War essentials exports from the United States to Japan increased by 124% along with a general increase of 41% of all American exports from 1936 to 1937 when Japan invaded China. Japan's war economy was fueled by exports to the United States at over twice the rate immediately preceding the war.
1937: Soviet Aid to China
Starting in 1937, the Soviet Union provided significant material aid to China in its war against Japan, including fighter aircraft, artillery, and armor.
1937: Chinese Red Army's Guerrilla Warfare and Growing Influence
In 1937, the Chinese Red Army began portraying itself as a defender of the people, engaging in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese.
1937: Invasion of Dunganistan
In 1937, pro-Soviet General Sheng Shicai, accompanied by Soviet troops, invaded Dunganistan to defeat General Ma Hushan of the KMT 36th Division. The Nationalist government denied these maneuvers as 'Japanese propaganda' to secure continued Soviet military supplies.
1937: Nationalist Army's Limited Resistance
From 1931 until the summer of 1937, the Nationalist Army, under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek, offered limited resistance to the increasing Japanese encroachment into China. This period of restrained response was influenced by a number of factors, including internal conflicts and a strategic calculation of priorities.
1937: Nanjing Massacre and Relocation of Chinese Government
Following the Japanese capture of Nanjing, the Chinese capital, in 1937, the city suffered a brutal massacre of its inhabitants, now known as the Nanjing Massacre. In the face of Japanese advances, the Chinese central government relocated to Chongqing, further inland, signifying the dire situation.
1937: Air Battles and China's Air Force Day
During the early days of the Battle of Shanghai, intense air battles erupted, with the Imperial Japanese Navy deploying advanced bombers and carrier-based aircraft. Despite suffering significant losses, the Chinese Air Force, equipped with Curtiss Hawk and P-26/281 fighters, put up a strong defense. August 14th is commemorated as China's Air Force Day in honor of their valiant efforts.
1937: Japanese Capture of Beijing and Shanghai
By 1937, amidst escalating tensions and skirmishes with Chinese forces, Japan achieved major victories, capturing the key cities of Beijing and Shanghai. These victories demonstrated Japan's growing military strength and further fueled the conflict with China.
1937: Japanese Military Casualties in Early Years of the War
Between 1937 and 1941, Japanese forces suffered heavy losses, with 185,647 soldiers killed and 520,000 wounded in action in China.
January 1938: Kuomintang Forces Weakened, Communist Resistance Continues
By January 1938, most conventional Kuomintang forces had been significantly weakened, with many defeated or offering minimal resistance to the Japanese advance. However, communist-led resistance in rural areas remained active.
April 1938: Battle of Taierzhuang: Japanese Expansion Thwarted
In April 1938, despite hoping to limit the conflict, the Japanese army escalated the war in Jiangsu province. However, their attempt to crush Chinese resistance was met with defeat at the Battle of Taierzhuang. This battle marked a significant setback to Japan's ambition of swiftly conquering China.
June 1938: The 1938 Yellow River Flood
In June 1938, the Chinese National Army took the drastic measure of destroying dikes on the Yellow River in Huayuankou, Henan Province, in an attempt to halt the Japanese advance. This act of desperation resulted in the catastrophic 1938 Yellow River flood, causing widespread devastation and claiming the lives of many Chinese civilians.
October 1938: Emperor Hirohito Authorizes Chemical Weapon Use in Wuhan
Historians reveal that Emperor Hirohito personally authorized the use of chemical weapons in the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938, highlighting the Japanese leadership's role in these actions.
1938: Japanese Advance and Eighth Route Army Resistance
Following their victory at Wuhan in 1938, the Japanese army pushed deeper into Communist-controlled territories. However, the Eighth Route Army, skilled in guerilla warfare, inflicted significant casualties, forcing a Japanese retreat. In response, Japan adjusted its tactics, focusing on infrastructure development, economic disruption, and brutal civilian suppression in an attempt to counter the resilient communist forces.
1938: Strained Alliance Between KMT and CCP
By late 1938, the alliance between the KMT and CCP began to deteriorate due to growing distrust and the Communists' efforts to expand their military influence by absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces.
1938: Australia Prevents Japanese takeover of Iron Mine
Australia also prevented a Japanese government-owned company from taking over an iron mine in Australia, and banned iron ore exports in 1938.
1938: Cooperation Between KMT and CCP
The KMT and CCP reached the peak of their cooperation in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan.
1938: US Allows Sale of Military Equipment to Japan
Japan's military machine acquired war materials, automotive equipment, steel, scrap iron, copper, oil, that it wanted from the United States in 1937–1940 and was allowed to purchase aerial bombs, aircraft equipment, and aircraft from America up to the summer of 1938.
1938: Ma Bufang's Anti-Japanese Efforts
In 1938, Ma Bufang supported anti-Japanese efforts, obstructing Japanese attempts to contact Tibetans and supporting Imam Hu Songshan's prayers for Japan's destruction. He became governor of Qinghai and commanded a group army.
April 1939: US Congressional Hearing on Japan
On Wednesday, 19 April 1939, the acting chairman Sol Bloom and other Congressmen interviewed Maxwell S. Stewart, a former Foreign Policy Association research staff and economist who charged that America's Neutrality Act and its "neutrality policy" was a massive farce which only benefited Japan and that Japan did not have the capability nor could ever have invaded China without the massive amount of raw material America exported to Japan.
June 1939: Red Army Attacks Chinese Militia
In June 1939, tensions between the KMT and CCP escalated when the Red Army, led by He Long, attacked and eliminated a brigade of Chinese militia under the command of Zhang Yin-wu in Hebei. This attack exemplified the CCP's increasing aggression and contributed to the breakdown of the United Front.
September 1939: Battles of Khalkhin Gol
From May to September 1939, The Soviet Union defeated Japan in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol.
November 1939: Chinese Nationalist Winter Offensive
In November 1939, amidst a stalemate in the war, Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale winter offensive against the Japanese. This offensive, aimed at breaking the deadlock, showcased the resilience of Chinese forces.
1939: Japanese Soldier Evacuations Due to Illness
The number of Japanese soldiers evacuated from North China due to illness rose to 23,000 in 1939.
1939: "Magnetic Warfare" and the Defense of Changsha
The year 1939 saw the Chinese army successfully employing a strategy termed "magnetic warfare" to counter the Japanese. This tactic, exemplified by the defense of Changsha in 1939, involved luring Japanese forces into carefully planned ambushes and encirclements.
1939: Shifting Tides and Chinese Counteroffensive
The year 1939 marked a turning point with significant Chinese victories against the Japanese. Encouraged by these successes, China launched a large-scale counteroffensive in early 1940. However, Japan's superior military capabilities and China's logistical limitations led to the counteroffensive's eventual failure.
1939: End of Soviet Volunteer Aviators' Support
By 1939, the support provided by Soviet volunteer combat aviators to the Chinese Air Force in their fight against Japanese occupation came to an end. This marked the conclusion of Operation Zet, which had been ongoing since late 1937.
August 1940: CCP Offensive in Central China
In August 1940, the Chinese Communist Party forces launched a significant offensive in central China, targeting Japanese positions and supply lines. This offensive highlighted the CCP's growing military capabilities and their commitment to resisting Japanese occupation.
September 1940: Japan Occupies Northern French Indochina
Japan invaded and occupied the northern part of French Indochina (present-day Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia) in September 1940 to prevent China from receiving the 10,000 tons of materials delivered monthly by the Allies via the Haiphong–Yunnan Fou Railway line.
October 1940: US Extends Trade Agreement with Japan
The US government extended a trade agreement with Japan for six months, then fully restored it. Under the agreement, Japan purchased trucks for the Kwantung Army, machine tools for aircraft factories, strategic materials (steel and scrap iron up to 16 October 1940, petrol and petroleum products up to 26 June 1941), and various other much-needed supplies.
1940: Japanese Plague Bombing of Ningbo
In 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force engaged in biological warfare by dropping fleas infected with the bubonic plague on Ningbo, leading to widespread outbreaks.
1940: Increased Conflict Between Nationalists and Communists
Starting in 1940, open conflicts between Nationalist and Communist forces became increasingly common in Japanese-occupied areas outside of Japanese control.
1940: Nationalist Chinese Challenge Japanese Casualty Figures
In 1940, the Nationalist Chinese authorities publicly challenged the accuracy of Japanese reports on Chinese casualties. They accused Japan of inflating Chinese losses while downplaying their own.
1940: Prime Minister Konoe Launches the Taisei Yokusankai
In 1940, as part of Japan's wartime mobilization efforts, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe launched the Taisei Yokusankai, an organization aimed at creating a one-party state and garnering public support for the war effort. This move signified the increasing totalitarian control over Japanese society during the conflict.
1940: Japan's Puppet Government Strategy
Facing administrative challenges in occupied territories by 1940, Japan turned to establishing puppet governments. The most notable was the Wang Jingwei Government, led by a former KMT official. However, these puppets proved largely ineffective due to widespread unpopularity stemming from Japanese atrocities and lack of real authority.
1940: Guerilla Warfare and the "Three Alls Policy"
Despite territorial gains, Japan faced relentless resistance from Chinese guerrilla forces in 1940. Frustrated by their inability to quash this resistance, the Japanese military resorted to the brutal "Three Alls Policy" - kill all, loot all, burn all. This policy, rooted in desperation and a disregard for human life, led to widespread atrocities and suffering.
1940: Chinese Counteroffensive Falters
Despite early successes in 1939, China's large-scale counteroffensive, launched in 1940, ultimately failed. This failure was attributed to Japan's superior military industry, China's lack of experience in modern warfare, and internal conflicts within the Chinese military.
1940: US Exports to Japan Increase
America exported far more raw material to Japan than to China in the years 1937–1940. War essentials exports from the United States to Japan increased by 124% along with a general increase of 41% of all American exports from 1936 to 1937 when Japan invaded China. Japan's war economy was fueled by exports to the United States at over twice the rate immediately preceding the war.
1940: Japan Agrees to "Gentlemen's Agreement"
In 1940, Japan agreed to a "gentlemen's agreement" to not move into southern French Indochina.
January 1941: New Fourth Army Incident
In January 1941, open conflict between the Chinese Nationalists and Communists reached a boiling point with the New Fourth Army Incident. This event marked a significant escalation in tensions between the two sides and further solidified the breakdown of their fragile alliance.
February 1941: Sino-British Agreement on Guerrilla Assistance
In February 1941, a Sino-British agreement was made where British troops would assist Chinese guerrilla units in China, and China would support Britain in Burma.
May 1941: US Lend-Lease Act Benefits China
On May 6, 1941, China became a beneficiary of the US Lend-Lease Act, marking a significant turning point in receiving diplomatic, financial, and military aid from the United States, particularly after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
June 1941: US Extends Trade Agreement with Japan
The US government extended a trade agreement with Japan for six months, then fully restored it. Under the agreement, Japan purchased trucks for the Kwantung Army, machine tools for aircraft factories, strategic materials (steel and scrap iron up to 16 October 1940, petrol and petroleum products up to 26 June 1941), and various other much-needed supplies.
June 1941: Germany Attacks the Soviet Union
On 22 June 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union. Hitler's assault threw the world into a frenzy of re-aligning political outlooks and strategic prospects.
June 1941: Soviet Shift and US Lend-Lease to China
As the Soviet Union turned its focus towards the looming threat of Nazi Germany in June 1941, their aid to China dwindled. Recognizing this, Chiang Kai-shek turned to the United States for increased support.
July 1941: US Oil Embargo on Japan
On 21 July, Japan occupied the southern part of French Indochina, contravening a 1940 "gentlemen's agreement". On July 24, Roosevelt requested Japan withdraw all its forces from Indochina. Two days later the US and the UK began an oil embargo.
October 1941: Japanese Chemical Weapon Use in Yichang
During the October 1941 battle in Yichang, Japanese forces deployed chemical weapons, including artillery-delivered munitions, mortar fire, and aerial gas bombs, resulting in significant casualties among ill-equipped Chinese troops.
December 1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor
The oil embargo set the stage for Japan to launch a series of military attacks against the Allies, including the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941.
December 1941: Japan Attacks Pearl Harbor, US Increases Aid to China
Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, and their subsequent declaration of war on the United States, drastically altered the course of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The US responded by significantly increasing aid to China, including vital supplies and financial support through the Lend-Lease Act.
December 1941: Japan Formally Declares War, Renames Conflict to "Greater East Asia War"
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Japan formally declared war on the United States and its allies. Simultaneously, the conflict in China, previously downplayed as "The China Incident", was renamed the "Greater East Asia War", reflecting Japan's expansionist ambitions and propaganda efforts.
1941: Japanese Military Casualties and Disease Outbreaks
The period from 1937 to 1941 saw a significant impact of disease on Japanese forces in China, with 430,000 soldiers recorded as falling ill.
1941: US Embargo on Japan
In 1941, the United States imposed an embargo on Japan, cutting off shipments of vital resources like oil. This action aimed to pressure Japan into ending the war in China but ultimately led to the attack on Pearl Harbor.
1941: Formation of the Flying Tigers
In 1941, the United States financed the creation of the American Volunteer Groups (AVG), including the 'Flying Tigers,' which arrived in China to replace Soviet volunteers and aircraft. They achieved early successes with 300 kills against a loss of 12 Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighters, gaining wide recognition for their high-speed hit-and-run tactics.
1941: Japanese Occupation of International and French Concessions in Shanghai
In 1941, following Japan's declaration of war on the United States and the United Kingdom, Japanese forces moved into the Shanghai International Settlement and the Shanghai French Concession, areas previously outside of their control due to the treaty port system.
1941: Bombing of Xining
In 1941, Xining was bombed by Japanese warplanes, leading to a united defense by various ethnicities in Qinghai. General Han Youwen directed the city's defense and survived an aerial bombardment while being directed by Ma Bufang.
1941: Japanese Plague Attacks on Changde
Evidence from the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials confirmed Japanese use of plague-infected fleas as biological weapons in Changde in 1941, causing devastating epidemics.
1941: Limited Japanese Control in Occupied China
By 1941, despite occupying large swathes of territory, Japanese control in China remained largely limited to major cities and transportation lines. The vast countryside remained a battleground where Chinese guerrilla forces operated with considerable freedom, effectively challenging Japanese authority.
1941: Nationalist and Communist War Strategies and Casualties
By the end of 1941, the Chinese Communist Party shifted its approach, focusing on political offensives against Japan while preserving its strength. In contrast, the Nationalists bore the brunt of direct confrontations with Japanese forces, deploying their best divisions, resulting in higher casualties. While the Communists engaged in guerrilla warfare, the Nationalists engaged in larger-scale battles.
1941: Stalemate in the Second Sino-Japanese War
By 1941, despite occupying significant portions of eastern China and Vietnam, Japan found itself locked in a stalemate. Unexpectedly fierce Chinese resistance had taken a toll on Japanese forces. Unlike the swift victories of Nazi Germany in Europe, the war in China had become a grinding conflict with neither side capable of achieving a decisive breakthrough.
1941: Successful Defense of Changsha
The Chinese army once again successfully defended Changsha in 1941 using their "magnetic warfare" strategy. This successful defense against a larger Japanese force demonstrated the effectiveness of China's evolving tactics and their growing resilience.
February 1942: Mission 204 Commando Operation
In February 1942, the British-Australian commando operation, Mission 204, was initiated to train Chinese guerrilla troops. The mission conducted operations in Yunnan and Jiangxi, with the second phase being more successful before withdrawal.
April 1942: Chinese Forces Rescue British Troops
In April 1942, during the Battle of Yenangyaung in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers found themselves encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division. The Chinese 38th Division successfully came to their rescue.
April 1942: Burma Road Blockade
In April 1942, the Japanese blocked the Burma Road, forcing US and British supplies to China to be airlifted over the Himalayas, known as 'the Hump,' continuing daily until August 1945 despite dangerous conditions.
May 1942: Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign
Following the Doolittle Raid, the Imperial Japanese Army initiated the Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign in May 1942. They aimed to locate surviving American airmen, retaliate against the Chinese who helped them, and destroy air bases. This brutal campaign resulted in widespread devastation and the spread of diseases, leading to the deaths of countless civilians.
July 1942: Ma Buqing's Strategic Relocation
In July 1942, Nationalist General Ma Buqing was directed by Chiang Kai-shek to move 30,000 troops to the Tsaidam marsh in Qinghai, threatening Sheng Shicai's southern flank in Xinjiang amid growing Soviet threats.
1942: US Air Forces replace Flying Tigers
In 1942, the US Army Air Forces replaced the 1st American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers), who had been flying American warplanes painted with the Chinese flag to attack the Japanese under the command of Claire Lee Chennault.
1942: Creation of the Sino-American Cooperative Organization
In 1942, the Republic of China and the United States signed the SACO Treaty, forming the Sino-American Cooperative Organization. This entity facilitated mutual intelligence gathering, training programs, and various wartime missions in China, including weather forecasting, rescuing downed flyers, and intercepting Japanese radio traffic.
1942: Allied Disagreements and Tensions
In 1942, disagreements persisted among the Allies regarding the prioritization of the war effort. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill hesitated to commit troops to reopening the Burma Road, a crucial supply line for China, while US General Joseph Stilwell considered it essential. Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of China, opposed the "Europe First" strategy and bristled at British demands to send more Chinese troops to defend British colonial possessions in Indochina. Chiang also clashed with Stilwell over military strategy and further strained relations with the UK by supporting Indian independence.
1942: Chiang Kai-shek Appointed Allied Commander-in-Chief and Strained Relations with Stilwell
In 1942, Chiang Kai-shek was appointed Allied commander-in-chief in the China theater. American general Joseph Stilwell served as his chief of staff for a time, but their relationship deteriorated due to differing strategic visions and perceptions of the Kuomintang government.
1942: Mission 204 and Covert Operations
The year 1942 witnessed the launch of Mission 204, a British initiative to aid the Chinese Nationalist Army. Additionally, Chinese individuals of American and Canadian origin were recruited for covert operations within Japanese-occupied China. These operatives used their ethnicity as a cover to sabotage Japanese supply lines.
February 1943: Second Phase of Mission 204 Begins
In February 1943, the second phase of Mission 204, a British operation to assist the Chinese Nationalist Army, commenced. Building on lessons learned from an unsuccessful first attempt in 1942, this phase aimed to provide more effective support.
1943: Famine Grips Guangdong
The year 1943 brought about a severe famine in Guangdong province. Reports from the time estimated a staggering death toll of 600,000 people in Siyi due to starvation. This tragedy highlighted the devastating impact of the war on the civilian population and the widespread suffering it caused.
1943: Xinjiang's Anti-Soviet Stance and Supply Challenges
In 1943, the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai, with Chiang Kai-shek's approval, adopted an anti-Soviet stance, leading to the Soviet Union's refusal to allow the United States to supply China through Kazakhstan into Xinjiang. This decision further hampered China's ability to obtain necessary resources to counter Japanese offensives.
April 1944: Japanese Advance in Henan
In mid-April 1944, Japanese forces launched an attack on Henan province, crossing the Yellow River and encircling the city of Luoyang.
May 1944: Japanese Control Henan
By the end of May 1944, Japan had established control over Henan province, marking a significant victory in their Operation Ichi-Go campaign.
May 1944: Japan Invades Hunan
In late May 1944, Japanese forces initiated an invasion of Hunan province as part of their Operation Ichi-Go offensive.
June 18, 1944: Changsha Captured by Japan
On June 18, 1944, the city of Changsha, which held strategic importance, fell to Japanese forces. The Chinese defense was overwhelmed, allowing Japan to capture the city.
August 8, 1944: Hengyang Falls to Japan
On August 8, 1944, Hengyang, home to a United States air base, was captured by Japanese forces after a period of intense fighting and heavy losses on both sides.
September 1944: Japanese Advance into Guangxi
In early September 1944, Japanese forces entered the province of Guangxi, swiftly capturing US air bases in Guilin, Liuzhou, and Nanning. The Nationalist troops tasked with defending northern Guangxi, numbering 170,000, exhibited low morale and a lack of willingness to engage in combat, leading to widespread disintegration of units. Leaders within the Guangxi Clique, such as General Bai Chongxi, made the strategic decision to abandon Guilin and Liuzhou, recognizing the futility of defending these cities.
October 1944: Operation Ichi-Go Concludes
By October 1944, Operation Ichi-Go, a massive Japanese campaign, concluded. Despite achieving its objectives of capturing US air bases and establishing a potential railway route, the operation came too late to alter the course of the war.
October 1944: Sichuan Remains Under Nationalist Control
By October 1944, Sichuan stood out as the sole remaining major province still under the control of the Nationalist government.
November 1944: Ili Rebellion
In November 1944, the Ili Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang when Kuomintang officer Liu Bin-Di was killed by Turkic Uyghur rebels. The Soviet Union supported the rebels, and Kuomintang forces fought back.
November 1944: Japanese Advance Slows
In late November 1944, the rapid Japanese advance experienced a slowdown approximately 300 miles from Chongqing. This slowdown was primarily attributed to a growing shortage of both trained soldiers and essential military materiel. Although Operation Ichi-Go successfully achieved its objectives of capturing American air bases and establishing a potential railway corridor from Manchukuo to Hanoi, these accomplishments came at a late stage in the war, diminishing their overall impact on the final outcome.
1944: Japanese Offensive Forces Evacuation
In 1944, the Japanese Operation Ichi-Go offensive forced the evacuation of British and Commonwealth forces from their base in northern Burma, impacting the progress made during the second phase of Mission 204.
1944: Chinese Forces Drive Out Japanese from North Burma
By the end of 1944, Chinese troops, under the commands of Sun Li-jen from India and Wei Lihuang from Yunnan, successfully converged in Mong-Yu. Their joint operation effectively drove the Japanese forces out of North Burma, securing the Ledo Road, a crucial supply route for China.
May 1945: End of World War II and Capture of Japanese Soldiers
By May 1945, as World War II drew to a close, Chinese forces reported the capture of 22,293 Japanese soldiers. Many more surrendered after the war ended.
August 1945: Japanese Surrender and Emperor Hirohito's Capitulation
In August 1945, following the Soviet Union's swift destruction of the Kwantung Army, the primary Japanese fighting force, Emperor Hirohito announced Japan's surrender to the Allies.
August 1945: Soviet Invasion of Manchuria
In August 1945, The Soviet Union annulled the neutrality pact with Japan and invaded Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, the Kuril Islands, and northern Korea.
August 1945: End of Airlift Operations Over the Hump
By August 1945, the dangerous airlift operations over the Himalayas, known as 'the Hump,' had continued daily since April 1942, delivering crucial supplies to China at great cost in men and aircraft.
September 1945: Japan Surrenders, China Gains Recognition
On September 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and facing mounting pressure from Allied forces, Japan formally surrendered, marking the end of World War II. China, recognized as one of the Big Four Allies, regained territories lost to Japan and secured a place as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.
September 1945: Japanese Surrender to Chiang Kai-shek and Symbolic Timing
After the Allied victory, General Douglas MacArthur directed all Japanese forces in China, Taiwan, and French Indochina north of 16° north latitude to surrender to Chiang Kai-shek. The formal surrender occurred on September 9, 1945, at 9:00 am, echoing the Armistice of November 11, 1918, and symbolizing a "long lasting" peace in Chinese culture.
September 1945: Formal Surrender of Japan Aboard USS Missouri
The official surrender ceremony took place on September 2, 1945, aboard the battleship USS Missouri, signifying the end of World War II. Chinese general Hsu Yung-chang was among the Allied commanders present.
October 1945: Taiwan Under ROC Control and Unresolved Sovereignty
In October 1945, Taiwan and the Penghu islands came under the administrative control of the Republic of China (ROC) government under the auspices of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. The ROC declared October 25, 1945, as Taiwan Retrocession Day. However, the ongoing Chinese Civil War prevented both the newly established People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Nationalist ROC from formally signing the Treaty of San Francisco, leaving Taiwan's sovereignty ambiguous.
1945: Second Sino-Japanese War Ends
The Second Sino-Japanese War, a devastating conflict that ravaged Asia for eight years, concluded in 1945. The war's end marked a significant turning point in 20th-century history.
1945: End of the Second Sino-Japanese War
The Second Sino-Japanese War concluded in 1945, marking the end of World War II.
1945: Chinese Offensives and Planned Operations
In the spring of 1945, Chinese forces launched offensives that resulted in the recapture of Hunan and Guangxi provinces. With improvements in training and equipment, US General Albert Wedemeyer planned Operation Carbonado, aiming to retake Guangdong and establish a coastal port for a northward drive toward Shanghai. However, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, along with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, accelerated Japan's surrender, rendering these plans unnecessary.
1945: Reopening of Burma Road
In 1945, the Burma Road was reopened as the Ledo Road, providing a much-needed lifeline for supplies to reach China.
1945: Chiang Kai-shek Plans Counteroffensive
Following the conclusion of Operation Ichigo, Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the Nationalist government, initiated plans to withdraw Chinese troops from the Burma theater. This strategic withdrawal aimed to redeploy forces for a counteroffensive against Japanese troops within China in 1945, codenamed "White Tower" and "Iceman."
1945: China's Post-War State: Military Power, Economic Weakness, and Civil War
Despite emerging from the war as a significant military force, China faced severe economic challenges in 1945. The war's cost, internal strife, rampant inflation, and widespread corruption within the Nationalist government created a breeding ground for instability and the looming threat of a full-scale civil war.
1945: Communist Party's Expansion and Adaptability
By 1945, the Communist Party's skillful organization and propaganda efforts resulted in a surge in membership, reaching 1.2 million from a modest 100,000 in 1937. The Communists' ability to adapt to evolving wartime conditions transformed them into a formidable fighting force.
February 1946: Chinese Troops in Indochina
In February 1946, Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent to northern Indochina to accept the surrender of Japanese forces, utilizing the VNQDD to increase their influence.
March 1946: Chinese Withdrawal from Indochina
In March 1946, following a peace agreement with the French, Chinese troops began withdrawing from northern Indochina, allowing French forces to reoccupy the region.
1946: Resumption of the Chinese Civil War
Despite the shared struggle against Japan, the Chinese Civil War resumed in 1946, pitting the Communist Party against the Nationalist Party once more. This conflict, resuming after years of uneasy truce, would have a profound impact on China's future.
January 1947: End of the 1938 Yellow River Flood
The 1938 Yellow River flood, initiated in June 1938, continued to devastate the region for years. It wasn't until January 1947 that the floodwaters finally subsided, marking the end of a long and tragic period of suffering.
1949: KMT Retreat to Taiwan and Emotional Ties to the War
Following their defeat in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, KMT supporters, especially veterans who retreated to Taiwan, retained a strong emotional connection to the Second Sino-Japanese War.
1949: Soviet Occupation, Communist Expansion, and the Outbreak of the Chinese Civil War
The Soviet Union's occupation of Manchuria, while brief, allowed Communist forces to acquire surrendered Japanese weaponry, establish control over rural areas, and encircle Nationalist forces in major northeastern Chinese cities. This set the stage for the Chinese Civil War, culminating in a Communist victory in mainland China and the Nationalist retreat to Taiwan in 1949.
1951: Treaty of San Francisco and Taiwan's Unspecified Sovereignty
The Treaty of San Francisco, signed in 1951 without China's participation, saw Japan renouncing territorial sovereignty over Taiwan and Penghu islands without designating a recipient. This ambiguity regarding the transfer of sovereignty contributed to ongoing disputes over Taiwan's status.
1952: Treaty of San Francisco Comes into Force
The Treaty of San Francisco, which shaped the post-World War II order in the Pacific, came into effect in 1952, further solidifying the geopolitical landscape in the region.
1952: Treaty of Taipei and Ongoing Sovereignty Disputes over Taiwan
The Treaty of Taipei, signed in 1952 between the ROC and Japan, mirrored the Treaty of San Francisco by not explicitly stating Taiwan's sovereign holder. Despite Article 10 recognizing the Taiwanese people as citizens of the ROC, disputes between the PRC and ROC regarding Taiwan's sovereignty continue to this day. Japan maintains a neutral stance, acknowledging its renunciation of claims over former colonial possessions, including Taiwan.
2000: Cancellation of War Commemorations by DPP Government in Taiwan
After the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won the presidential election in 2000, national holidays in Taiwan commemorating the Second Sino-Japanese War, such as Victory Day on September 9 and Taiwan's Retrocession Day on October 25, were canceled. The pro-independent DPP's stance stemmed from their view that these events held less relevance to Taiwan's separate identity.
2005: Controversial Japanese History Textbook and Outcry over Nanjing Massacre Downplaying
A 2005 history textbook approved by the Japanese government minimized the Nanjing Massacre and other atrocities, referring to them as "incidents." The textbook's downplaying of Japanese war crimes, including the issue of comfort women, sparked outrage and protests in China and Korea. Notably, a junior high school textbook from the same year omitted any mention of the "Nanjing Massacre" or "Nanjing Incident."
2005: KMT's 60th Anniversary Commemoration of War's End
On the 60th anniversary of the war's end in 2005, the KMT, then a powerful force in Taiwan, organized exhibitions and events commemorating the conflict and its aftermath, highlighting the enduring significance of the war for many Taiwanese, particularly those with ties to the KMT.
2017: China Revises Textbook Description of the War
In 2017, the Chinese Ministry of Education issued a directive changing the official textbook description of the Second Sino-Japanese War from the "Eight Years' War of Resistance" to the "Fourteen Years' War of Resistance". This change reflects a broader historical perspective, encompassing the earlier conflict starting with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
2017: Chinese Government's Official View on the War's Start
In 2017, the Chinese government formally adopted the view that the Second Sino-Japanese War began in 1931 with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria.