Justice, in its broadest sense, is the concept of treating individuals fairly. A core definition, found in the Institutes of Justinian, defines justice as the constant and perpetual will to render to each their due. This encapsulates the fundamental principle of ensuring that individuals receive what they are owed or deserved, forming a basis for various interpretations and applications of justice.
In 1976, Andrew von Hirsch suggested in his book "Doing Justice" that there is a moral obligation to punish greater crimes more severely than lesser ones, with utilitarian ideals playing a secondary role within that constraint.
In 2003, research conducted at Emory University involving capuchin monkeys demonstrated that other cooperative animals also possess a sense of fairness and that "inequity aversion may not be uniquely human".
In 2008, studies at UCLA indicated that reactions to fairness are "wired" into the brain, activating the same area that responds to food in rats, suggesting fairness satisfies a basic need.
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