Ice is the solid state of water, formed when liquid water cools below its freezing point of 0°C (32°F) at standard atmospheric pressure. Chemically identical to liquid water (H2O), ice typically adopts a hexagonal crystalline structure, which makes it less dense than its liquid form—a rare property that causes it to float. In nature, ice plays a critical role in Earth's climate system as a major component of the cryosphere, including glaciers, ice caps, and sea ice. These formations act as giant mirrors, reflecting solar radiation back into space and regulating global temperatures. Ice is also essential in human life, serving as a primary method for food preservation, a critical element in cooling systems, and a staple in culinary arts. Beyond Earth, ice is prevalent throughout the solar system, found on planets, moons, and comets, serving as a vital subject of study for planetary scientists seeking to understand the history and potential habitability of other worlds.
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Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents have apprehended the captain of a speedboat involved in a fatal capsizing incident in New York Harbor. Authorities confirmed the captain was in the United States illegally during the time of the deadly accident.
1919: First Non-Stop Transatlantic Flight Icing Incident
During the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic in 1919, aviators Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown faced dangerous icing conditions that threatened their aircraft's performance. Brown had to manually remove ice from the engine air intakes while the plane was in flight.
1939: Friction Research by Bowden and Hughes
In 1939, researchers Frank P. Bowden and T. P. Hughes conducted studies challenging the "pressure melting" theory of ice slipperiness. They determined that pressure alone could not account for the ease of gliding on ice, as skaters would face significantly more friction than they actually do. Consequently, they proposed that the melting of the ice layer is primarily caused by heat generated from friction, a finding they published in 1939.
1941: Establishment of the Road of Life
In 1941, the Road of Life was established across the frozen Lake Ladoga to serve as the sole land route for supplying the besieged city of Leningrad during the German Army Group North blockade.
1942: Continued Operation of the Road of Life
Throughout 1942, the Road of Life remained the vital lifeline for Leningrad, facilitating the transport of massive quantities of supplies into the city and the mass evacuation of civilians during the winter season.
1943: Final Winter of the Road of Life
During the winter of 1943, the Road of Life concluded its service as the critical, unique supply path for the Soviet Union to bypass the German encirclement of Leningrad.
1965: Introduction of the First Refrigerator Icemaker
In 1965, the appliance brand Frigidaire introduced the first home refrigerator equipped with a built-in device capable of automatically producing ice.
1969: Commencement of Carburetor Icing Incident Recording
Starting in 1969, data collection began on engine failures caused by carburetor icing, which eventually contributed to a total of 468 recorded incidents by 1975.
1975: Conclusion of Carburetor Icing Data Collection Period
By 1975, the period of observation for carburetor icing-related engine failures concluded, having accounted for 468 incidents resulting in 75 aircraft losses, 44 fatalities, and 202 serious injuries.
1992: Beginning of Measured Global Sea Ice Loss
Starting in 1992, researchers began tracking a period of significant global sea ice loss, primarily located in the Arctic, which has contributed to environmental changes comparable to 10% of total greenhouse gas emissions observed through 2018.
1994: End of Lake Balaton Ice Harvesting for Hungarian Parliament
In 1994, the practice of using ice harvested during the winter from Lake Balaton to provide air conditioning for the Hungarian Parliament building officially came to an end, marking the conclusion of a cooling method that had been in use since the 1930s.
1994: Beginning of Global Ice Loss Measurement Period
Starting in 1994, a multi-decade observation period commenced that recorded the loss of 28 trillion tonnes of ice globally due to human-induced greenhouse gas emissions and the resulting accumulation of heat.
1996: Discovery of Ice XII
In 1996, scientists successfully discovered Ice XII, which is identified as one of the metastable phases of ice that occurs under pressure and maintains a fully hydrogen-disordered crystalline structure.
2002: US Commercial Ice Industry Statistics
In 2002, the United States ice-making industry consisted of 426 commercial companies, which generated a collective shipment value of $595,487,000.
2006: Discovery of Ice XIII and Ice XIV
The scientific community identified two new crystalline phases of ice, known as Ice XIII and Ice XIV, in 2006. These phases are categorized as hydrogen-ordered forms of ices V and XII, respectively.
2009: Discovery of Ice XV
During 2009, researchers discovered Ice XV, a distinct phase of ice that forms under conditions of extremely high pressure and a temperature of −143 °C.
2014: Frictional Heating in Ice Research
In 2014, research indicated that frictional heating serves as the primary mechanism governing the frictional properties of ice under the majority of standard environmental conditions.
2017: Conclusion of Global Ice Loss Study
By the year 2017, the cumulative loss of global ice reached 28 trillion tonnes, with Arctic sea ice accounting for the most significant portion of this loss at 7.6 trillion tonnes.
2018: Cumulative Assessment of Sea Ice Decline
By 2018, data analysis concluded that the cumulative loss of sea ice occurring since 1992 had resulted in a global environmental impact equivalent to 10% of greenhouse gas emissions generated over those 26 years.
May 2019: Redefinition of the Kelvin
In May 2019, the scientific definition of the kelvin was officially changed, moving away from the previous definition based on the triple point of water and absolute zero.
2050: Economic Impact of Permafrost Thaw
By the year 2050, the thawing of permafrost is projected to cause extensive infrastructure collapse due to ground liquefaction, leading to economic damages estimated in the tens of billions of dollars.
Mentioned in this timeline
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