History of Saka in Timeline

The Saka were nomadic Eastern Iranian peoples inhabiting the Eurasian Steppe and Tarim Basin from the 9th century BC to the 5th century AD. Closely related to the Scythians, they are considered part of the broader Scythian cultures but are distinguished by unique geographical and cultural characteristics. Their language belonged to the Scythian phylum, a branch of the Eastern Iranian languages. The Saka represent a significant, yet sometimes overlooked, aspect of ancient Central Asian history and contribute to understanding the complex tapestry of cultures in that region.

1900: Srubnaya Culture

Around 1900 BC, the Srubnaya culture existed in the region between the Caspian Sea and the Southern Urals.

1925: Archaeological Excavations Begin at Pazyryk

In 1925, archaeological excavations started at the kurgans at Pazyryk in the Ulagan district of the Altai Republic. Five large burial mounds and several smaller ones were discovered between 1925 and 1949.

1947: Sergei Rudenko opens a Pazyryk Burial Mound

In 1947, Russian archaeologist Sergei Rudenko opened one of the large burial mounds at Pazyryk. The burial mounds concealed chambers of larch-logs covered over with large cairns of boulders and stones.

1949: Pazyryk Excavations Conclude

In 1949, excavations at the Pazyryk kurgans concluded. Five large burial mounds and several smaller ones were discovered between 1925 and 1949, leading to the extrapolation of the Pazyryk culture.

1968: Discovery at Tillia Tepe

In 1968, a site was found in Tillia Tepe (literally "the golden hill") in northern Afghanistan near Shebergan, consisting of the graves of five women and one man with extremely rich jewelry. This discovery has been dated to around the 1st century BC, and is probably related to that of Saka tribes normally living slightly to the north.

2000: Andronovo Culture

Around 2000 BC, the Andronovo culture existed in the region between the Caspian Sea and the Southern Urals.

2001: Discovery of Royal Scythian Burial-Barrow at Arzhan

In 2001, the discovery of an undisturbed royal Scythian burial-barrow at Arzhan illustrated Scythian animal-style gold that lacks the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered near Kyzyl, capital of the Siberian republic of Tuva.

2002: Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of Saka Remains

In 2002, a study analyzed the mitochondrial DNA of Saka period skeletal remains from a double inhumation kurgan at the Beral site in Kazakhstan. The study found that the two individuals buried were not closely related. The male's HV1 mitochondrial sequence was similar to the Anderson sequence, common in European populations, while the female's HV1 sequence suggested Asian origins.

2003: Discovery of a "Golden Man"

In 2003, the remains of a "golden man," similar to the Issyk kurgan golden man, were found. The Kurgans contained vast quantities of precious golden jewelry (4262 gold finds).

2004: Genetic Study of Scytho-Siberian Remains

In 2004, a study examined the HV1 sequence obtained from a male "Scytho-Siberian" at the Kizil site in the Altai Republic. The sample belonged to the N1a maternal lineage, a geographically West Eurasian lineage. Another study by the same team using mtDNA from two Scytho-Siberian skeletons found in the Altai Republic, showed that they had been typical males "of mixed Euro-Mongoloid origin". One of the individuals was found to carry the F2a maternal lineage, and the other the D lineage, both of which are characteristic of East Eurasian populations.

2009: Y-DNA Analysis of Ancient Human Specimens

In 2009, Keyser et al. provided ancient Y-DNA data by studying the haplotypes and haplogroups of 26 ancient human specimens from the Krasnoyarsk area in Siberia, dated from between the middle of the 2nd millennium BC and the 4th century AD (Scythian and Sarmatian timeframe). The study revealed that nearly all subjects belonged to haplogroup R-M17, suggesting that populations known as Scythians and Andronovians were blue- (or green-) eyed, fair-skinned and light-haired people who may have contributed to the Tarim Basin civilization's early development. They were also found to be genetically closer to modern populations in eastern Europe than those of central and southern Asia.

May 2018: Genetic Study of Inner Asian Sakas

In May 2018, a genetic study published in Nature examined the remains of twenty-eight Inner Asian Sakas buried between ca. 900 BC to AD 1, compromising eight Sakas of southern Siberia (Tagar culture), eight Sakas of the central steppe (Tasmola culture), and twelve Sakas of the Tian Shan. The study found that the six samples of Y-DNA extracted from the Tian Shan Saka belonged to the West Eurasian haplogroups R (four samples), R1 and R1a1. Four samples of Y-DNA extracted from central Steppe sakas belonged to haplogroup R1 and R1a, while one individual belonged to haplogroup E1b1b.

2018: Genetic Differences Among Saka Groups

In 2018, a study detected significant genetic differences between analyzed Inner Asian Saka-associated samples and Scythian samples of the Pannonian Basin, as well as between different Saka subgroups of southern Siberia, the central steppe and the Tian Shan. Inner Asian Saka displayed additional Neolithic Iranian (BMAC) and Southern Siberian hunter-gatherer components in varying degrees.

2019: Proto-Turkic Elements in Eastern Scythians

According to Tikhonov, et al. (2019), the Eastern Scythians and the Xiongnu "possibly bore proto-Turkic elements", based on a continuation of maternal and paternal haplogroups.

2020: Saka Ancestry Modeling

In 2020, a genetic study published in Cell modeled the ancestry of several Saka groups as a combination of Sintashta (Western Steppe Herders) and Baikal EBA ancestry (Western Baikal early Bronze Age hunter-gatherers), with varying degrees of an additional Neolithic Iranian (BMAC) component. Central Sakas were about 43% Sintashta ancestry, 50% Baikal_EBA ancestry and 7% BMAC ancestry.

2020: Excavation of Burial Mounds in Eleke Sazy Valley

In 2020, archaeologists excavated multiple burial mounds in the Eleke Sazy Valley in East Kazakhstan and found a large number of gold artifacts. These artifacts included golf harness fittings, pendants, chains, appliqués, and more, most of which are in the Animal Style of the Scythian-Saka era, dating back to the 5th–4th centuries BC.

2021: Origin of Saka

In 2021, a genetic study found that the Saka originated from a shared WSH-like (Srubnaya, Sintashta, and Andronovo culture) background with additional BMAC and East Eurasian-like ancestry.

2022: Saka Origin Study

In 2022, a genetic study found that the Saka originated from a shared WSH-like (Srubnaya, Sintashta, and Andronovo culture) background with additional BMAC and East Eurasian-like ancestry. The spread of Saka-like ancestry can be linked with the dispersal of Eastern Iranian languages.