Electronic calculators are portable devices used for a wide range of mathematical calculations, from simple arithmetic to advanced functions. They have become ubiquitous tools in various settings due to their convenience and ability to handle complex operations.
1902: Invention of the Push-Button Calculator
James L. Dalton revolutionized calculator design in 1902 with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, featuring the now-familiar push-button interface.
1921: Edith Clarke's Specialized Calculator
In 1921, Edith Clarke invented the "Clarke calculator," a graph-based device designed to solve line equations with hyperbolic functions. This invention simplified complex calculations related to inductance and capacitance for electrical engineers working on power transmission lines.
1948: The Curta Calculator: Portable Mechanical Marvel
The Curta calculator, launched in 1948, gained popularity for its portability despite its high cost. This mechanical device could perform basic arithmetic operations and remained in production until the early 1970s when electronic calculators became dominant.
1957: Advancements in Electronic Calculators
In 1957, Casio introduced the Model 14-A, the world's first all-electric compact calculator. While not using electronic logic but relay technology, it marked a shift towards electronic design. The same year, IBM released the 608, its first all-transistor calculator, a console-based system using punched cards for input and output.
October 1961: The ANITA: Pioneering Electronic Desktop Calculator
October 1961 marked the debut of the ANITA (A New Inspiration To Arithmetic/Accounting), the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator. Developed by Bell Punch in Britain, it used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes, and Dekatrons, with a Nixie tube display.
1962: ANITA's Early Success and Features
The ANITA, available in two models (Mk VII and Mk VIII), was released in early 1962. Its full keyboard, resembling mechanical comptometers, set it apart. The ANITA's electronic design offered silent and fast operation, contributing to its commercial success as the sole electronic desktop calculator at the time.
June 1963: Friden EC-130: Transistorized and Feature-Rich
June 1963 saw the arrival of the Friden EC-130, a U.S.-made all-transistor calculator. It featured a CRT display, a four-number stack, and introduced Reverse Polish Notation (RPN). While expensive at $2200, it represented progress in calculator technology.
1964: The Emergence of Programmable Calculators
The mid-1960s witnessed the advent of programmable calculators, starting with the Mathatronics Mathatron in 1964. These desktop calculators offered features like solid-state design, printing capabilities, floating-point arithmetic, algebraic entry, and programmability.
1964: Competition and Innovation in the Calculator Market
The year 1964 witnessed the introduction of more all-transistor calculators, including the Sharp CS-10A and the Industria Macchine Elettroniche IME 84. These models offered varying features and price points, intensifying competition.
1965: ELKA 6521: Bulgarian Innovation
Bulgaria's ELKA 6521, launched in 1965, was notable for being the first calculator to include a square root function. Its development and production took place in Sofia.
1965: Olivetti Programma 101: Advancements in Programmability
The Olivetti Programma 101, launched in late 1965, further advanced programmable calculator technology. It gained wider adoption than earlier models and introduced offline program storage using magnetic cards.
1966: Victor 3900: Integrating Circuits into Calculators
The Victor 3900, introduced in 1966, marked a significant step by incorporating integrated circuits instead of individual transistors. However, production issues delayed its market availability.
1967: Cal Tech: The First Handheld Calculator Prototype
The first handheld calculator, the Cal Tech prototype, was developed in 1967 under the leadership of Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments. This prototype could perform basic arithmetic operations and used paper tape for output.
1967: Casio Enters Programmable Calculator Market
In 1967, Casio introduced the AL-1000, an early Japanese programmable desktop calculator. It featured a nixie tubes display and utilized transistor electronics and ferrite core memory.
1967: Monroe Epic: A Powerful but Limited Programmable Calculator
The Monroe Epic, released in 1967, was a large, programmable desk-top calculator. While capable of performing numerous computer-like functions, it lacked conditional branch logic (IF-THEN-ELSE), a defining feature that distinguished programmable calculators from computers at the time.
1970: The Dawn of Portable Calculators
By 1970, advancements in chip technology enabled the creation of calculators with low power requirements, paving the way for portable, battery-powered models.
1970: First Commercial Portable Calculators
The year 1970 marked the advent of the first commercially produced portable calculators, which originated in Japan and quickly gained global popularity. Notable examples include the Sanyo ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator," the Canon Pocketronic (a product of the "Cal-Tech" project, featuring thermal paper tape output), and the Sharp QT-8B "micro Compet."
January 1971: Sharp EL-8 Release
In January 1971, Sharp Corporation unveiled the EL-8, also recognized as the Facit 1111, a significant stride towards a truly pocketable calculator. Weighing 1.59 pounds, it incorporated a vacuum fluorescent display, rechargeable NiCad batteries, and an initial price tag of US$395.
May 1971: DB 800: Europe's First Pocket Calculator
May 1971 witnessed the birth of the DB 800, the first European-made pocket-sized calculator. Developed by Digitron in Buje, Croatia (then Yugoslavia), this four-function calculator boasted an eight-digit display, along with special characters to indicate negative numbers and warn of calculations exceeding the display limit.
1971: Pico Electronics and General Instrument Collaboration
1971 saw Pico Electronics and General Instrument joining forces to introduce their inaugural IC collaboration—a comprehensive single-chip calculator IC designed for the Monroe Royal Digital III calculator. This partnership between Pico, a spinout company founded by five GI design engineers with a vision for single-chip calculator ICs, and GI itself, proved remarkably successful amidst the burgeoning handheld calculator market.
1971: Busicom LE-120A "HANDY" Debut
Early in 1971, the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY" emerged as the first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator, originating from Japan. This groundbreaking device marked several firsts: the first calculator to feature an LED display, the first to utilize a single integrated circuit (the Mostek MK6010, dubbed a "calculator on a chip"), and the first to operate using replaceable batteries. Powered by four AA-size cells, the LE-120A measured a compact 4.9 by 2.8 by 0.9 inches.
1971: First "Calculator on a Chip" Integrated Circuits (ICs)
In 1971, all the logic functions of a calculator were integrated into single integrated circuits (ICs) known as "calculator on a chip." However, due to the cutting-edge technology at the time, yields were limited, and costs remained high. As a result, many calculators, especially scientific and programmable models, continued to use multiple ICs into the late 1970s.
1971: Bowmar 901B Launch and Eldorado Electrodata Enters the Market
The autumn of 1971 saw the release of the first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly known as "The Bowmar Brain"). Measuring 5.2 by 3.0 by 1.5 inches, it offered four functions, an eight-digit red LED display, and was priced at US$240. Meanwhile, in 1971, Eldorado Electrodata, after two years of development and a failed partnership with Texas Instruments, introduced five pocket calculators. Among them was the Touch Magic, described as "no bigger than a pack of cigarettes" by Administrative Management.
1971: First "Calculator on a Chip"
The year 1971 witnessed a pivotal moment in calculator history with the introduction of the first "calculator on a chip." Mostek's MK6010 marked this achievement, followed by Texas Instruments' own offering later that year. This breakthrough, coupled with advancements in display technologies like vacuum fluorescent displays, LEDs, and LCDs, paved the way for the affordability and widespread accessibility of pocket calculators within a few years.
August 1972: Sinclair Executive Release
In August 1972, the Sinclair Executive emerged as the first slimline pocket calculator. With dimensions of 5.4 by 2.2 by 0.35 inches and a weight of 2.5 ounces, it was priced around £79 (US$194 at the time). By the decade's end, similar calculators became available for under £5 ($6.85).
1972: Introduction of CMOS Technology and the Sharp "EL-801"
The introduction of CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) technology in 1972 significantly reduced the power consumption of integrated circuits. In CMOS ICs, transistors in the logic cells only consume significant power when switching states. Sharp's "EL-801" was one of the early calculators to incorporate CMOS technology.
1972: Early LCD Calculators and the Busicom LC
In 1972, the first pocket-sized calculator with an LED display, the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY," was introduced. Busicom also announced the Busicom LC, which would have been the first calculator with an LCD, but it never went on sale due to display problems. The first successful calculators with LCDs, using the Dynamic Scattering Mode (DSM) with bright numbers on a dark background, were manufactured by Rockwell International and sold under various names.
1972: HP-35: A Scientific Breakthrough
Hewlett-Packard (HP) entered the pocket calculator market in early 1972 with the HP-35. Unlike the basic four-function calculators available then, it was the first to offer scientific functions, posing a potential replacement for slide rules. Priced at $395, the HP-35, like most subsequent HP engineering calculators, utilized reverse Polish notation (RPN), also known as postfix notation. This model had 35 buttons and was powered by the Mostek Mk6020 chip.
1972: Sharp's EL-805 and COS Technology
In 1972, Sharp Inc. launched a slim pocket calculator, the Sharp EL-805, which used a reflective DSM-LCD. This and other Sharp models utilized their Calculator On Substrate (COS) technology, where an extension of the LCD's glass plate served as a substrate for mounting chips using a new hybrid technology. However, the COS technology was likely expensive and was used only in a few models before Sharp returned to conventional circuit boards.
August 1973: Sinclair Cambridge Launch
August 1973 marked the launch of the Sinclair Cambridge, one of the earliest low-cost calculators. Priced at £29.95 ($41.03), or £5 ($6.85) less in kit form, it gained popularity due to its affordability compared to competitors. However, its design compromised computational speed and accuracy, particularly for transcendental functions, which were limited to three decimal places of accuracy.
1973: Elektronika B3-04 Development
By the end of 1973, the Soviet Union had developed its first pocket-sized calculator, the Elektronika B3-04.
1973: TI Enters the Scientific Calculator Arena
In 1973, Texas Instruments (TI) introduced the SR-10 (SR standing for slide rule), an algebraic entry pocket calculator employing scientific notation, priced at $150. Shortly after, the SR-11 was released, featuring a dedicated key for pi (π). The following year, TI unveiled the SR-50, which incorporated log and trigonometric functions to rival the HP-35.
1974: ELKA's Expansion and Pocket Model
ELKA continued to develop calculator models, culminating in the release of the ELKA 101 in 1974. This pocket-sized calculator, featuring Roman script, was exported to Western markets.
1974: Elektronika B3-04 Release
The Elektronika B3-04, the first Soviet-made pocket-sized calculator, hit the market in 1974.
1974: HP-65: The Dawn of Programmable Calculators
The HP-65, launched in 1974, marked a significant milestone as the first programmable pocket calculator. It offered a capacity of 100 instructions and facilitated program storage and retrieval using an integrated magnetic card reader.
1975: "B3-18" Completes Development
The development of the "B3-18," the first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator, reached completion by the end of 1975.
1976: Calculator Prices Drop, Leading to Market Changes
By 1976, the price of a basic four-function pocket calculator plummeted to a few dollars, a significant drop compared to its cost five years prior. This affordability made it challenging for manufacturers to maintain profitability, leading many companies to exit the calculator business or shut down entirely. The companies that survived and thrived were those that could produce high volumes of higher-quality calculators or specialized in advanced scientific and programmable models.
1976: Elektronika B3-21 Development Concludes
The development of Elektronika B3-21, the first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator, concluded by the end of 1976.
1977: TI-30 Line Launch
In 1977, Texas Instruments launched the mass-market TI-30 line of calculators, a line that continues to be produced today.
1977: Elektronika B3-21 and B3-34 Release
The Elektronika B3-21, the first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator, was released in 1977. However, its successor, the Elektronika B3-34, lacked backward compatibility despite retaining reverse Polish notation (RPN). Consequently, the B3-34 introduced a new command set that influenced subsequent Soviet programmable calculators. Despite limited capabilities (98 bytes of instruction memory and approximately 19 stack and addressable registers), these machines became platforms for various programs, from practical scientific and business applications to games. The Elektronika MK-52, based on the expanded B3-34 command set and featuring internal EEPROM for program storage and an external interface for EEPROM cards and other peripherals, even served as a backup for the board computer in the Soviet spacecraft program (Soyuz TM-7 flight).
1978: Calculated Industries and the Loan Arranger
The year 1978 saw the emergence of Calculated Industries (CI), a company focusing on specialized calculator markets. Their debut product, the Loan Arranger, targeted the real estate industry, featuring preprogrammed functions designed to simplify loan payment and future value calculations.
1978: First Calculators with Field-Effect, Twisted Nematic (TN) LCDs
The mid-1970s saw the emergence of the first calculators featuring field-effect, twisted nematic (TN) LCDs with dark numerals on a gray background. Early models often included a yellow filter to block harmful ultraviolet rays. This energy-efficient display technology led to the development of the first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the Casio Mini Card LC-78 in 1978, which could operate for months on button cells.
1978: Solar-Powered Calculators
The reduced power consumption achieved through advancements like CMOS technology paved the way for solar-powered calculators. Around 1978, calculators like the Royal Solar 1, Sharp EL-8026, and Teal Photon emerged, utilizing solar cells as their primary power source.
1979: HP-41C: Alphanumeric and Expandable
In 1979, HP introduced the HP-41C, the first alphanumeric, programmable, and expandable calculator. It allowed expansions through random-access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM) modules, and supported peripherals such as bar code readers, microcassette and floppy disk drives, paper-roll thermal printers, and various communication interfaces (including RS-232, HP-IL, and HP-IB).
1981: HP Introduces the HP 12c Financial Calculator
In 1981, HP introduced the HP 12c financial calculator, a highly successful model known for its reverse Polish notation (RPN) data entry method. The HP 12c remained in production with minimal changes for over two decades.
1985: Casio Releases First Graphing Calculator
Casio released the first graphing calculator, the Casio fx-7000G, in 1985, marking a significant advancement in calculator technology.
1985: Construction Master Release
In 1985, Calculated Industries launched the Construction Master, a calculator tailored for the construction industry. It came preloaded with common construction calculations, encompassing angles, stairs, roofing math, pitch, rise, run, and feet-inch fraction conversions, establishing the foundation for a series of construction-related calculators.
1986: Calculators' Significant Market Share
In 1986, calculators played a crucial role in global computing, representing approximately 41% of the general-purpose hardware capacity.
1987: HP Releases First Symbolic Computing Calculator
Hewlett-Packard (HP) launched the HP-28C in 1987. This calculator was groundbreaking as it was the first to offer symbolic computing capabilities, enabling it to solve equations symbolically, such as finding solutions to quadratic equations.
2000: Early Tools for Calculation
Before 2000 BC, civilizations like the Sumerians and Egyptians relied on tools like bones, pebbles, counting boards, and the abacus to aid in arithmetic calculations.
2003: HP Releases Updated HP 12c Models
HP released updated models of the HP 12c in 2003, including the "HP 12c platinum edition." This enhanced version featured increased memory, additional built-in functions, and the option for algebraic data entry alongside the traditional RPN mode.
2007: Decline in Dedicated Calculator Use
By 2007, the prevalence of smartphones and similar devices led to a significant decline in the use of dedicated calculators. Their share of global computing capacity plummeted to less than 0.05%.
December 2011: Debate over Calculator Use in Schools Intensifies in the UK
In December 2011, Nick Gibb, the UK's Minister of State for Schools, expressed concerns about students becoming "too dependent" on calculators. This concern led to a review of the national curriculum, including the use of calculators in schools. The debate centered around the potential impact of calculator use on fundamental arithmetic skills and the development of mathematical understanding.
2016: The Rise of Specialized Calculators
By 2016, a variety of calculators catered to specific needs, including scientific and graphing calculators, alongside basic models. While basic calculators remained inexpensive, scientific and graphing versions were more costly.