The Gulag was a system of forced labor camps in the Soviet Union established during Joseph Stalin's rule. Although "Gulag" originally referred to the specific division of the Soviet secret police in charge of the camps from the 1930s-1950s, it's commonly used to describe the entire Soviet-era forced labor system. The term "Gulag" is an abbreviation of the Russian phrase "Гла́вное Управле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х ЛАГере́й", with the agency's official name changing periodically.
1906: Katorga Convicts
In 1906, approximately 6,000 katorga convicts were serving sentences under the Tsarist regime.
1916: Increase in Katorga Convicts
By 1916, the number of katorga convicts had increased to 28,600 under the Tsarist penal system.
1918: Early Forced Labor Camps
In 1918, Trotsky experimented with forced labor camps for Czech war prisoners. He also proposed "compulsory labor service" in his work "Terrorism and Communism." These camps, while not identical to later Stalinist or Nazi camps, were used to isolate war prisoners in the aftermath of World War I.
1918: Solovki prison camp opens
In 1918, the Solovki prison camp, the first correctional labor camp after the Russian Revolution, was established.
1918: Solovetsky Islands Camp Established
One of the earliest Gulag camps was established on the Solovetsky Islands in 1918, initially housing primarily Russian intelligentsia and offering relative freedom within the islands' natural confines.
1918: Start of Gulag Operations
The Gulag system began its operations in 1918. At its peak, it comprised hundreds of camps, each holding thousands of prisoners.
1918: Beginning of Early Gulag Period
The period from 1918 to 1929 represents an early phase of the Gulag system, for which imprisonment estimates are challenging to determine.
April 15, 1919: Decree Legalizing Forced-Labor Camps
On April 15, 1919, a decree was issued officially legalizing forced-labor camps in Soviet Russia, marking a significant step in the development of the Gulag system.
1920: Repression as a Political Tool
From 1920 to 1950, the Communist Party and Soviet state leaders employed repression to maintain control and power.
1921: Imprisonment without Trial
From 1921 to 1953, over 2.6 million imprisonments occurred based on secret police investigations, often without trial.
1922: NKVD Takes Over Prison System
In 1922, the NKVD (People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs) took over the Soviet prison system, previously overseen by the People's Commissariat of Justice.
1922: Cheka administration ends
In 1922, the administration of the Cheka over the Gulag system ended, transitioning to the GPU.
1923: GPU replaced by OGPU
In 1923, the GPU was replaced by the OGPU as the administrative body for the Gulag system.
1923: Naftaly Frenkel and the "Nourishment Scale"
Naftaly Frenkel, a prisoner at Solovki in 1923, proposed the "nourishment scale," linking food rations to labor output. This system led to many deaths among weaker prisoners and became a key feature of the Gulag.
1924: Lenin's Death and Stalin's Rise
After Lenin's death in 1924, Stalin consolidated power and began to establish the Gulag system.
1927: Opposition to Compelled Labor
In 1927, the official in charge of Soviet prison administration expressed opposition to the use of compelled labor.
1928: Start of Alternate Imprisonment Period
Between 1928 and 1953, an estimated 25 million prisoners passed through the Gulag, according to historian Orlando Figes.
1928: Growing Number of Internees
By 1928, the number of individuals interned in the Soviet penal system had reached 30,000.
1928: Start of Gulag Period
The period between 1928 and 1953 saw approximately 14 million prisoners in GULAG labor camps and 4-5 million in labor colonies, though these figures may overstate the actual number of individuals due to repeat convictions.
April 1929: Elimination of Judicial Distinctions
In April 1929, the legal distinctions between criminal and political prisoners were removed, and the OGPU gained control of the entire Soviet penal system.
June 27, 1929: Politburo Meeting on Penal Labor
On June 27, 1929, a Politburo meeting discussed and approved the use of penal labor, paving the way for the Gulag system.
July 11, 1929: Creation of "Corrective Labor Camps"
On July 11, 1929, a secret decree from the Sovnarkom laid the legal foundation for the system of "corrective labor camps" (Ispravitel'no-trudovye lagerya), commonly known as the Gulag.
July 27, 1929: "Correctional Labour Camp" Term Approved
On July 27, 1929, the Politburo officially sanctioned the term "correctional labour camp" for use in official communications.
1929: Start of Large-Scale Imprisonment
From 1929 to 1953, an estimated 14 million people were imprisoned in the Gulag labor camps.
1929: Gulag Colonization
In 1929, the OGPU was assigned the task of colonizing sparsely populated regions and exploiting their resources through forced labor.
1929: Dekulakization Begins
In late 1929, Stalin initiated the "dekulakization" campaign, targeting the kulak class of peasants, leading to imprisonment and executions.
1929: Maxim Gorky Visits Solovki
Maxim Gorky visited the Solovki camp in 1929 and subsequently published a report defending its existence.
1929: Start Date for Rosefielde's Estimate
Rosefielde's estimate of Gulag deaths begins in 1929.
April 7, 1930: Sovnarkom Order for Gulag Establishment
On April 7, 1930, the Sovnarkom issued an order that led to the establishment of the Gulag.
April 1930: "Free Settlement" Introduction
On April 12th, 1930, Genrikh Yagoda proposed the concept of "free settlement" to the OGPU Commission for the colonization of remote areas using forced labor.
April 25, 1930: Official Establishment of the Gulag
The Gulag was officially established on April 25, 1930, as the GULAG by OGPU order.
1930: Start of Gulag Mortality Period
From 1930 to 1953, an estimated 1.5 to 1.7 million prisoners perished in the Gulag camps or shortly after release.
1930: Start of Gulag Operations and Estimated Deaths
From 1930 to 1953, an estimated 18 million people passed through the Gulag, with between 1.6 and 1.76 million perishing due to their detention.
1930: Start Date for Healey's Estimate
Healey's estimate of Gulag deaths begins in 1930.
1930: Start Date for Gulag Death Certificates
The period for Gulag death certificates starts in 1930.
1931: Mass Exiles During Dekulakization
In 1931, during the dekulakization process, a significant number of people, specifically 1,803,392, were exiled.
1931: Gulag Population Growth
In 1931-32, the Gulag held about 200,000 prisoners.
August 1932: "Law of Spikelets" Enacted
The "Law of Spikelets," decreed in August 1932, imposed harsh penalties, including ten years of imprisonment or execution, for theft of even small amounts of grain.
May 1933: "Law of Spikelets" Relaxed
The harsh "Law of Spikelets" was relaxed in May 1933.
1933: Gorky Organizes Writer's Trip
In 1933, Maxim Gorky organized a trip for 120 writers and artists to the White Sea-Baltic Canal, resulting in a propaganda book published in 1934 but destroyed in 1937.
1933: High Mortality Rates in Uzbekistan Camps
In early 1933, Soviet reports revealed high mortality rates, up to 15% monthly, in Gulag camps in Uzbekistan due to harsh conditions and meager food rations.
1933: Nazino Affair and Shift to Labor Camps
The Nazino affair in 1933 led to the abandonment of the "special settlements" plan and solidified the use of labor camps.
1934: Propaganda Book Published
A propaganda book about the White Sea-Baltic Canal, written by participants of Gorky's organized trip, was published in 1934.
1934: Imprisonment of Intelligentsia
Between 1934 and 1941, the number of educated prisoners in the Gulag increased significantly, particularly among the intelligentsia.
1934: Beginning of Higher Mortality Rates in Gulag
From 1934, mortality rates within the Gulag camps were significantly higher than the average in the Soviet Union.
1934: OGPU becomes NKVD
In 1934, the OGPU was reorganized and became the NKVD, continuing its role in managing the Gulag system.
1934: Gulag Population Estimate
In 1934, the estimated Gulag population was 510,307.
1935: Continued Gulag Expansion
By 1935, around 800,000 prisoners were in Gulag camps and an additional 300,000 in colonies.
1935: Productive Activities and Reduced Workday for Prisoners
In early 1935, some prisoners had their workday reduced to four hours if they participated in productive activities such as livestock raising courses. The camp also had a theater group and newspapers.
1936: Start of the Great Terror
The Great Terror, spanning from 1936 to 1938, initially provided a large pool of forced labor for the Gulag system.
December 31, 1936: Gulag Population Discrepancy
On December 31, 1936, archival figures showed the Gulag and labor colony population at 1,196,369, less than half the 2.75 million reported to the Census Board by the NKVD for the 1937 census.
1937: The Great Purge and Mass Arrests
During the Great Purge of 1937-38, mass arrests led to a substantial increase in the Gulag inmate population. Thousands were executed under NKVD Order No. 00447.
1937: Census Board Report
In 1937, the NKVD reported a Gulag and labor colony population of 2.75 million to the Census Board, significantly higher than archival figures from December 31, 1936.
1937: Propaganda Book Destroyed
The propaganda book about the White Sea-Baltic Canal construction was destroyed in 1937.
1938: Beria's Inflated Report
At the end of 1938, Beria reported nearly 7 million prisoners in labor camps to the Politburo, a figure three times higher than archival records.
1938: Vyshinsky's Memorandum
In 1938, during the Great Purge, Andrei Vyshinsky, the chief procurator of the Soviet Union, sent a memorandum to Nikolai Yezhov, the head of the NKVD.
1938: End of the Great Terror
The Great Terror concluded in 1938, marking a decrease in the influx of prisoners into the Gulag.
1939: World War II and the GUPVI System
From 1939 to 1953, during and after World War II, the GUPVI, a department of the NKVD/MVD, managed foreign civilian internees and prisoners of war in a system similar to the Gulag.
1939: Early Release Schemes Halted
General early-release schemes for prisoners who met or exceeded work quotas were discontinued in 1939.
1939: Pre-WWII Gulag Population
On the eve of World War II in 1939, the combined Gulag camp and colony population was estimated to be upwards of 1.6 million.
March 1940: 53 Gulag Camp Directorates and 423 Labor Colonies
By March 1940, there were 53 Gulag camp directorates and 423 labor colonies operating within the Soviet Union.
1940: Gulag population reaches 1.5 million
By the end of 1940, the Gulag system's population reached 1.5 million prisoners.
1940: Polish Prisoners of War in Kolyma
In 1940, around 10,000-12,000 Polish prisoners of war were sent to Kolyma, a notorious Gulag region.
1940: Soviet Occupation and Annexations
In 1940, following the German invasion of Poland in 1939, the Soviet Union occupied and annexed several territories, including eastern Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia, and Bukovina, resulting in the arrest and deportation of hundreds of thousands of individuals to the Gulag.
1940: Gulag Focus on Railroad Construction
In 1940, the NKVD prioritized railroad construction within the Gulag system, which proved crucial during the German advance in 1941.
1940: Labor Disciplinary Measures
In 1940, the USSR implemented labor disciplinary measures where 1.8 million workers received forced labor sentences, 3.3 million faced sanctions, and 60,000 were imprisoned for absenteeism.
1940: Implementation of Short Sentences
In mid-1940, laws allowing short camp sentences for minor offenses were implemented to address labor shortages in the Gulag.
January 1941: Increase in Gulag Workforce
By January 1941, the Gulag workforce had grown by approximately 300,000 due to short sentences given for minor offenses to address labor shortages.
June 1941: Increased Demands and Strained Resources in the Gulag
As Axis forces advanced into Soviet territory from June 1941, the Gulag faced increased demands for output despite dwindling labor resources and limited supplies.
June 1941: Conditions Worsen After German Attack
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, conditions in the Gulag camps deteriorated significantly, marked by increased quotas, reduced rations, and severe shortages of medical supplies, leading to a surge in mortality rates.
June 1941: Gulag Labor Shortages and Total War Footing
In June 1941, as the Soviet Union entered a total war footing, Gulag labor shortages worsened due to early releases of prisoners for military service.
1941: Gulag War Production
After the German invasion in 1941, the Gulag system was increasingly utilized for war production, including ammunition, uniforms, and other supplies, with skilled workers gathered into specialized colonies.
1941: Increased Intelligentsia in Gulag
By 1941, there was a disproportionately high number of intelligentsia among Gulag prisoners, reflecting the Soviet regime's distrust of this group.
1941: Increase in Gulag Deaths Following German Invasion
Following the German invasion in 1941, Gulag deaths increased substantially.
1941: Gulag Mortality and the German Invasion
In the winter of 1941, a quarter of the Gulag population perished from starvation, and in 1941-1943, over 500,000 prisoners died due to harsh conditions and famine caused by the German invasion. This period represents a significant portion of total Gulag deaths.
1942: Gulag Supply Administration and Limited Rations
Due to food scarcity and lack of central aid, the Gulag established the Supply Administration in 1942 to procure its own resources. Limited rations were also implemented to incentivize harder work, a policy lasting until 1948.
1942: Increased Gulag Mortality Rates
During 1942-1943, Gulag mortality rates increased significantly due to harsh working conditions and famine resulting from the German invasion.
1942: Release of Polish POWs
In 1942, a small number of surviving Polish POWs from Kolyma (583 men) were released to join the Polish Armed Forces in the East.
1942: Increased Workload and Reduced Rations
In 1942, to meet increased demands, Gulag prisoners faced longer working hours and reduced food rations, impacting their productivity and overall camp functionality.
1942: Food Shortages and Decline in Camp Population
Severe food shortages in 1942 led to a decline in Gulag camp populations.
1942: Increased Punishments
The conditions of Soviet workers worsened during World War II, with 1.3 million punished in 1942, including reduced food rations and imprisonment.
1943: Peak of Gulag Deaths During War Years
Around 1943, Gulag deaths reached their peak during the war years, with approximately half of the total deaths occurring between 1941 and 1943.
1943: Reintroduction of Katorga Works
The term "katorga works" was reintroduced in 1943, initially for Nazi collaborators but later extended to other political prisoners, signifying harsher conditions within the Gulag system.
1943: Continued Punishments
The trend of labor punishments continued in 1943, with 1 million workers facing sanctions, including food ration reductions and imprisonment.
1944: Gulag Camp Changes and Replenishment
From the beginning of the war to mid-1944, 40 new Gulag camps were established and 69 were disbanded. As the Soviets pushed back Axis forces, the Gulag population was replenished, including a significant number of Soviet ex-POWs.
1944: Treatment of Soviet POWs and Filtration Camps
In 1944, freed Soviet POWs were processed through "filtration" camps, with the majority cleared and a small percentage arrested or sent to penal battalions. These individuals were also subsequently sent to reserve military formations for further NKVD clearance.
1944: Ongoing Punishments
In 1944, one million Soviet workers were subjected to punishments, including reduced food rations and imprisonment, as part of ongoing labor disciplinary measures.
February 11, 1945: Yalta Conference and Repatriation Agreement
On February 11, 1945, the Yalta Conference concluded with a Repatriation Agreement between the US, UK, and Soviet Union, which led to the forced repatriation of millions of former Soviet citizens, including many who had established different citizenships.
May 1945: End of War in Europe and Forced Repatriations
With the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, approximately two million former Russian citizens were forcibly repatriated to the USSR.
1945: Filtration Camps Established
In 1945, approximately 100 filtration camps were set up for repatriated Ostarbeiter, POWs, and other displaced individuals. These camps processed over 4,000,000 people.
1946: Population of Filtration Camps Cleared
By 1946, the NKVD had cleared most of the population from the filtration camps. Those cleared were either sent home or conscripted, with a portion transferred to the Gulag.
1946: Early Release Schemes Reintroduced
Early release schemes for meeting and exceeding work quotas were reintroduced in selected Gulag camps starting in 1946.
1946: Gulag Population Overstatement
In 1946, the official Gulag population figures reflected camp capacity, not the actual number of inmates, leading to a potential overstatement of the real figure by 15%.
1946: NKVD becomes MVD
The NKVD was renamed the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) in 1946, marking another shift in the Gulag's administration during its final years.
1947: Return to Soviet-Controlled Poland
In 1947, only a small fraction (310 out of 80,000) of the Polish evacuees from the Soviet Union, gathered in Great Britain under General Anders, chose to return to Soviet-controlled Poland.
1947: Tightening of Legislation on Property Offenses
In the summer of 1947, legislation on property offenses was tightened, leading to a surge in prison sentences, often for minor theft or embezzlement. This coincided with a famine in parts of the Soviet Union.
1947: Completion of Forced Repatriation Operations
The forced repatriation operations, which began in 1945, concluded in 1947.
1948: Establishment of "Special Camps"
In 1948, "special camps" were created specifically for political prisoners convicted under Article 58, which addressed "Enemies of the people", encompassing treason, espionage, and terrorism.
1948: Misinterpretation of "Directed to Other Places of Detention"
The phrase "directed to other places of detention" in 1948, referring to internal transfers within the Gulag, has been misinterpreted as the release of dying prisoners.
1948: End of Limited Rations Policy
The policy of limiting rations in the Gulag to incentivize work, implemented in 1942, was discontinued in 1948.
1950: Repression as a Political Tool Ends
By 1950, the period during which the Soviet leadership extensively used repression as a political tool, which began in 1920, ended.
1950: Wage Payments Introduced
Starting in 1950, Gulag prisoners began receiving wage payments as an incentive to increase productivity.
1952: Inflated Prisoner Count
A 1952 report by the Soviet minister of State Security to Stalin stated a figure of 12 million prisoners in labor camps, substantially exceeding archival records.
March 1953: Stalin's Death and Weakening of Camp Authority
Following Stalin's death in March 1953, the Gulag system continued, but the authority of camp officials weakened, leading to various conflicts and uprisings.
1953: End of World War II's Impact
1953 marked the end of World War II's direct influence on the GUPVI system, which had managed foreign internees and POWs similarly to the Gulag since 1939.
1953: End of Large-Scale Imprisonment
1953 marked the end of a period in which an estimated 14 million people were imprisoned in the Gulag labor camps, from 1929.
1953: End of Gulag Mortality Period
1953 marked the end of a period where an estimated 1.5 to 1.7 million prisoners died in the Gulag system or shortly after their release, spanning from 1930.
1953: Post-War Gulag Growth
After a decline during World War II, the Gulag population grew again, reaching a new peak by 1953.
1953: Gulag Population Exceeds 2.4 Million
At the start of 1953, the total number of Gulag prisoners surpassed 2.4 million, with over 465,000 classified as political prisoners.
1953: Archival Data Study Reveals Gulag Deaths
By 1953, archival Soviet data revealed a total of 1,053,829 deaths in the Gulag between 1934 and 1953.
1953: Gulag Population Estimate
By 1953, the Gulag population had increased to an estimated 1,727,970, or over 2.4 million according to other estimates.
1953: End of Gulag Operations and Death Toll Estimates
By 1953, the end of major Gulag operations, incomplete data suggests a death toll of 2,749,163, including deaths from labor colonies and special settlements.
1953: Changes in Sentencing
In 1953, changes were made to sentencing guidelines, reducing the maximum sentence for petty theft and adjusting other penalties.
1953: End Date for Rosefielde's Estimate
Rosefielde's estimate of Gulag deaths ends in 1953.
1953: Limited Amnesty for Non-Political Prisoners
The amnesty of 1953 primarily benefited non-political prisoners and those with sentences under five years, leading to the release of many common criminals.
1954: Release of Political Prisoners Begins
The release of political prisoners commenced in 1954, coinciding with mass rehabilitations.
February 1956: Khrushchev's Secret Speech
In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalinism at the 20th Congress of the CPSU furthered the release and rehabilitation of political prisoners.
1956: End of Major Gulag Operations
Major operations of the Gulag system ended in 1956.
1956: End Date for Gulag Death Certificates
The period for Gulag death certificates ends in 1956.
1958: Maximum Sentence Reduction
The maximum sentence for any crime was reduced from 25 years to 15 years in 1958.
January 1960: Gulag System Officially Abolished
On January 25, 1960, the Gulag system was officially abolished by Nikita Khrushchev, dissolving the remaining administrative structure.
January 25, 1960: Official Closure of the Gulag Institution
The Gulag institution was officially closed on January 25, 1960, by MVD order No 020, though forced labor colonies persisted.
1960: Decentralization of Camp Administration
In 1960, the MVD's role as the central administrator of the camps ended, transferring control to individual republic MVD branches.
1973: "The Gulag Archipelago" Published
In 1973, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn published "The Gulag Archipelago," bringing international attention to the Soviet labor camp system.
1987: Closure of Perm-36
Perm-36, one of the most renowned camps for political prisoners, remained operational until its closure in 1987.
1990: Zemskov Publishes Gulag Statistics
Between 1990 and 1992, Viktor Zemskov published the first precise statistical data on the Gulag based on archival documents.
1991: Post-Soviet Research on Gulag Deaths
After 1991, access to archival materials allowed historians to conduct further research, significantly revising earlier estimates of Gulag deaths.
1992: Initial Foreign Access Granted
In 1992, foreign scientists gained initial access to restricted Gulag archives in the State Archive of the Russian Federation.
1992: Zemskov's Statistics Publication Concludes
Viktor Zemskov's publication of Gulag statistics, which began in 1990, concluded in 1992.
1993: Study of Archival Soviet Data on Gulag Deaths
In 1993, a study of archival Soviet data provided a more accurate account of deaths in the Gulag system.
1995: Foreign Access to Archives
Starting in 1992, some foreign scientists were granted access to restricted Gulag archives in the State Archive of the Russian Federation. However, by 1995, access was restricted again.
2004: Archival Documents Published
In 2004 and 2005, archival documents relating to the Gulag were published in "The History of Stalin's Gulag."
2005: "History of Stalin's Gulag" Published
"The History of Stalin's Gulag," containing archival documents, was published in 2004 and 2005.
2009: Rosefielde's Estimate of Gulag Deaths
In 2009, Steven Rosefielde estimated Gulag excess deaths at 1.6 million between 1929 and 1953, based on more complete archival data.
2015: Gulag Museum Opening
A new museum dedicated to the Gulag opened in Moscow in 2015, adding to the State Gulag Museum already established in the city.
2018: Healey's Statement on Gulag Mortality Consensus
In 2018, Dan Healey confirmed the consensus on Gulag mortality, estimating between 1.5 and 1.7 million deaths out of 18 million who passed through the system between 1930 and 1953.
2018: Alexopoulos Challenges Gulag Death Toll Consensus
In 2018, Golfo Alexopoulos challenged the established consensus on Gulag deaths by including those whose lives were shortened due to the harsh conditions.
2020: Nakonechnyi's Research on Medical Releases from the Gulag
In 2020, Mikhail Nakonechnyi's doctoral dissertation examined medical releases from the Gulag, estimating about 1 million terminally ill prisoners were released, adding 800,000-850,000 excess deaths to the toll.