History of Brexit in Timeline
Brexit, the withdrawal of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU), took effect on January 31, 2020, following a 2016 referendum. This historic event ended the UK's 47-year membership in the bloc, making it the only sovereign nation to have left the EU. Post-Brexit, EU law no longer supersedes British law, with the UK retaining and potentially amending relevant EU legislation through the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018.
1910: Last Time a Third Party Won a Nationwide Election
The year 1910 marked the last time a party other than Labour or the Conservatives secured the largest share of the vote in a nationwide election in the UK.
1951: Treaty of Paris Establishes ECSC
A pivotal moment in European integration occurred in 1951 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which laid the foundation for the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). This treaty brought together six European countries—Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany—in a pioneering effort to pool their coal and steel resources under a common management structure.
1955: Messina Conference Expands European Integration
Building upon the success of the ECSC, the Messina Conference in 1955 marked a significant step towards expanding European integration. It was at this conference that the six member states of the ECSC resolved to extend the principles of economic cooperation to other sectors, paving the way for the establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC).
1957: Treaties of Rome Establish EEC and Euratom
The year 1957 witnessed the signing of the landmark Treaties of Rome, which established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). These treaties represented a major advancement in European integration, expanding economic cooperation and fostering collaboration in the field of nuclear energy.
1963: UK's First Application to Join the EEC Vetoed
The UK made its initial attempt to join the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1963. However, this application faced a significant roadblock as it was vetoed by French President Charles de Gaulle. De Gaulle harbored concerns that the UK's membership would undermine the EEC's unity and potentially increase US influence within the bloc.
1967: European Communities (EC) Formed and UK's Second Application Vetoed
In 1967, the European Economic Community (EEC), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) were collectively renamed as the European Communities (EC). During the same year, the UK submitted its second application to join the EC, but it was once again met with a veto from France under President Charles de Gaulle.
1969: De Gaulle's Resignation Opens Door for UK's EC Membership
Charles de Gaulle's resignation as President of France in 1969 marked a turning point for the UK's European aspirations. With de Gaulle's departure, the primary obstacle to British membership in the European Communities (EC) was removed, creating a more favorable environment for the UK to pursue its long-standing goal of joining the bloc.
October 1971: House of Commons Debate and Vote on EC Membership
A pivotal debate took place in the House of Commons in October 1971, thoroughly examining the implications of the UK joining the European Communities (EC). This debate culminated in a decisive vote in favor of membership, with 356 MPs voting in support and 244 against. The debate highlighted the significance of the decision and ensured that it was made with careful consideration.
1972: European Communities Act 1972
The European Communities Act 1972 was a pivotal piece of legislation that paved the way for the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community (EEC), the precursor to the European Union. This act incorporated EEC law into the UK legal system, establishing the supremacy of EU law over domestic law in areas of shared competence and laying the groundwork for decades of integration.
1972: European Communities Act 1972
The European Communities Act 1972 was a pivotal piece of legislation that paved the way for the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community (EEC), the precursor to the European Union. This act incorporated EEC law into the UK legal system, establishing the supremacy of EU law over domestic law in areas of shared competence and laying the groundwork for decades of integration.
1972: UK Signs Treaty of Accession and Passes European Communities Act
In 1972, the UK formally committed to joining the European Communities (EC) by signing the Treaty of Accession. This was followed by the passage of the European Communities Act in the UK Parliament, a crucial legislative step that incorporated EC law into the UK's legal framework.
January 1973: UK Joins the European Communities (EC)
A historic moment arrived on January 1, 1973, when the UK, alongside Denmark and the Republic of Ireland, officially became a member of the European Communities (EC). This marked the beginning of the UK's 47-year membership in the bloc.
January 1973: UK Joins the European Communities
The UK joined the European Communities (EC) in January 1973, marking the beginning of its membership in the bloc.
1973: UK Joins the European Communities
The UK joined the European Communities (EC) in 1973.
February 1974: Labour Party's Eurosceptic Stance in General Election
The Labour Party adopted a more Eurosceptic stance during the February 1974 general election, reflecting a growing sentiment within the party that the UK's terms of membership in the European Communities (EC) were unfavorable.
October 1974: Labour Party's Pledge for EC Renegotiation and Referendum
In the October 1974 general election, the Labour Party campaigned on a promise to renegotiate the UK's terms of membership in the European Communities (EC) and hold a referendum on whether to remain in the EC based on the outcome of these renegotiations. This commitment highlighted the Labour Party's desire to address concerns regarding the UK's relationship with the EC.
June 1975: UK Holds First National Referendum on EC Membership
On June 5, 1975, the UK held its first-ever national referendum, seeking the public's opinion on whether the country should remain a member of the European Communities (EC). This historic vote was significant as it marked the first time that a national referendum had been used to decide on such a fundamental question of the UK's international relations.
1975: 1975 EC Membership Referendum
In the 1975 referendum on continued membership in the European Community (EC), two-thirds of British voters expressed their support for remaining part of the EC.
1975: UK's First Referendum on EC Membership
A referendum in 1975 confirmed the UK's continued membership in the EC.
1975: UK's First Referendum on EC Membership
In 1975, the UK held its first referendum on continued EC membership, with 67.2% voting to remain.
1977: Fluctuating Support for EU Membership
From 1977 to 2015, public opinion on EU membership fluctuated, with both pro- and anti-EU views enjoying majority support at different points in time.
1979: UK Obtains Its First Opt-Out from European Integration
In 1979, the UK secured its first opt-out from a major European integration initiative. The UK chose not to participate in the European Monetary System (EMS), which aimed to stabilize exchange rates among participating European countries. This decision reflected the UK's cautious approach towards European integration and its preference for maintaining a degree of autonomy in monetary policy.
1983: Labour Party Considers Withdrawal
The Labour Party included withdrawal from the EC in its 1983 election manifesto.
1983: Labour Party's Commitment to Withdraw from EC
In the 1983 general election, the Labour Party campaigned on a platform that included a commitment to withdraw the UK from the European Communities (EC) without holding a referendum. This stance reflected the party's increasingly Eurosceptic outlook at the time.
1985: Thatcher Government Ratifies Single European Act
The second Margaret Thatcher government took a significant step in 1985 by ratifying the Single European Act (SEA) without holding a referendum. The SEA aimed to create a single market within the European Communities (EC), further integrating the economies of member states.
1988: Margaret Thatcher's Bruges Speech
In 1988, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher delivered her famous Bruges Speech, expressing concerns about a "European super-state" and advocating for a less centralized European Community.
October 1990: UK Joins the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM)
In October 1990, the UK joined the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), a system designed to reduce exchange rate volatility among participating European countries. Under the ERM, the pound sterling was pegged to the deutsche mark. This decision was taken despite deep reservations from Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who faced pressure from senior ministers advocating for the UK's participation in the ERM.
1990: Founding of the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain
Daniel Hannan founded the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain in 1990, marking an early organized effort toward British withdrawal from the European Community.
September 1992: UK Withdraws from the ERM on "Black Wednesday"
The UK's membership in the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) proved to be short-lived. On September 16, 1992, a day that became known as "Black Wednesday," the UK was forced to withdraw from the ERM after the pound sterling came under intense pressure from currency speculation. This event had significant political and economic ramifications for the UK.
1992: Maastricht Treaty Signed
The Maastricht Treaty, which established the European Union, was signed in 1992.
November 1993: EC Becomes the European Union (EU) under Maastricht Treaty
A pivotal moment in European integration occurred on November 1, 1993, when the European Communities (EC) formally transitioned into the European Union (EU). This transformation was enacted through the Maastricht Treaty, which had been ratified by the UK and the other eleven member states. The treaty represented a significant step towards deeper political and economic integration among European nations.
1993: Maastricht Treaty Ratification and Eurosceptic Response
The UK's ratification of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 ignited strong Eurosceptic sentiment, causing divisions within the Conservative Party and leading to the formation of several Eurosceptic parties.
1993: UK Ratifies Maastricht Treaty
The British parliament ratified the Maastricht Treaty in 1993.
1993: Growing Euroscepticism
A study by Professor John Curtice in April 2016 revealed a rise in Euroscepticism in the UK, with an increasing number of people desiring to either leave the EU or reduce its powers.
1994: Formation of the Referendum Party
Sir James Goldsmith established the Referendum Party in 1994, advocating for a referendum on the UK's relationship with the EU. This party participated in the 1997 general election but did not secure any parliamentary seats.
1997: Rise of UKIP and Death of James Goldsmith
The UK Independence Party (UKIP), a Eurosceptic party, gained prominence under the leadership of Nigel Farage. The same year, Sir James Goldsmith, founder of the Referendum Party, passed away, leading to the party's dissolution.
1998: Scotland Act Passed, Defining Devolved Powers
The Scotland Act of 1998 established the framework for devolved powers in Scotland, outlining the relationship between the Scottish Parliament and the UK Parliament.
2004: UKIP's Rise in European Elections
UKIP made significant gains in the 2004 European elections, coming in third place and highlighting the increasing appeal of their Eurosceptic message.
2005: Invisible Border Established Between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland
In 2005, the border between Northern Ireland, part of the UK, and the Republic of Ireland, an EU member, became essentially invisible as part of the peace process.
2008: Treaty of Lisbon Ratified
The UK ratified the Treaty of Lisbon in 2008 without a referendum, despite previous promises.
2009: Lisbon Treaty with Article 50 Comes into Effect
The Treaty of Lisbon, which includes Article 50 outlining the process for withdrawal from the European Union, came into effect in 2009. The article, drafted by Lord Kerr of Kinlochard, allows member states to leave the EU by notifying the European Council and engaging in a two-year negotiation period.
2009: UKIP's Continued Success in European Elections
UKIP continued to gain ground in the 2009 European elections, achieving second place and further solidifying their position as a prominent force in British politics.
2010: Analysis of the Leave Vote
In 2017, a study revealed that areas with lower incomes, high unemployment, a history of manufacturing employment, and a less educated population were more likely to have voted Leave in the EU referendum. Additionally, areas that experienced a significant influx of Eastern European migrants, particularly low-skilled workers, and were impacted by economic decline, high suicide and drug-related death rates, and austerity measures implemented in 2010 also tended to favor Leave.
2011: Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011
The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, enacted in 2011, had significant implications for UK elections. This act established fixed dates for general elections, aiming for greater stability. However, it later posed a challenge for Prime Minister Johnson in calling a snap election.
May 2012: Coining of the Term "Brexit"
The term "Brexit," a portmanteau of "British" and "exit," was first coined in May 2012 by Peter Wilding, director of European policy at BSkyB, in a blog post on the Euractiv website. Wilding intended it to refer to the hypothetical scenario of the UK's departure from the EU.
2012: Cameron's Initial Rejection of a Referendum
Prime Minister David Cameron initially dismissed calls for a referendum on the UK's EU membership but later suggested the possibility of a future referendum.
January 2013: Cameron's Bloomberg Speech and Promise of a Referendum
In January 2013, yielding to pressure from Conservative MPs and the rising popularity of UKIP, David Cameron pledged in his Bloomberg speech to hold an in-out referendum on EU membership if his party won the next general election.
2013: EU Membership and Immigration Concerns
In 2013, public concern about EU membership remained relatively low. However, immigration and asylum emerged as significant issues for British voters.
2014: Scottish Independence Referendum Results in "Remain" Vote
In 2014, a referendum on Scottish independence resulted in 55% of voters choosing to remain part of the UK.
2014: UKIP's Electoral Success and By-Election Victories
UKIP capitalized on anti-immigration sentiment, linking it to EU membership, and achieved considerable success in the 2014 European elections, becoming the first party besides Labour or the Conservatives to win the most votes in a nationwide election since 1910. Furthermore, UKIP secured victories in two by-elections, signaling growing public support for their Eurosceptic stance.
May 2015: Conservative Victory and Promise of a Referendum
The Conservative Party won the May 2015 general election, and as promised, began preparations for a referendum on EU membership.
November 2015: Public Opinion on EU Membership
A survey conducted between July and November 2015 indicated that 60% of Britons supported continued EU membership while 30% favored withdrawal.
December 2015: Public Opinion on EU Membership
Opinion polls conducted in December 2015 revealed that a majority of the British public favored remaining in the EU. However, the polls also showed that support would decline if Cameron failed to negotiate certain safeguards and restrictions related to non-eurozone member states and benefits for non-UK EU citizens.
2015: David Cameron and the Promise of an EU Referendum
Facing pressure from within his party and the rise of UKIP, Prime Minister David Cameron promised to hold a referendum on EU membership if the Conservatives won the 2015 general election.
2015: Conservative Party Wins Election and Prepares for EU Referendum
Following their victory in the 2015 general election, the Conservative Party, led by David Cameron, initiated the process for holding a referendum on the UK's membership in the European Union.
2015: Fluctuating Support for EU Membership
From 1977 to 2015, public opinion on EU membership fluctuated, with both pro- and anti-EU views enjoying majority support at different points in time.
2015: David Cameron Promises EU Referendum
In 2015, David Cameron promised a referendum on EU membership if his party won the general election.
2015: No Event Found
No event found for this date.
2015: 2015 Referendum Act
The 2015 Referendum Act, while not explicitly mandating the invocation of Article 50, set the stage for the Brexit referendum. The British government at the time pledged to honor the referendum's result.
February 2016: Outcome of EU Renegotiations
The results of the UK's renegotiations with the EU were announced in February 2016. While some limitations on in-work benefits for new EU immigrants were agreed upon, implementing them would require approval from the European Commission and the European Council.
February 2016: Cameron Announces Referendum Date
In February 2016, David Cameron addressed the House of Commons and revealed June 23, 2016, as the date for the EU referendum.
April 2016: Growing Euroscepticism
A study by Professor John Curtice in April 2016 revealed a rise in Euroscepticism in the UK, with an increasing number of people desiring to either leave the EU or reduce its powers.
June 2016: Non-British EU Staff in the NHS
In June 2016, data revealed that 58,702 NHS staff members were recorded as having a non-British EU nationality, highlighting the significant contribution of EU citizens to the UK's healthcare workforce.
June 2016: Economic Uncertainty Following Brexit Referendum
Immediately following the June 2016 referendum, economists observed a decline in various economic indicators in the UK, including GDP, national income, business investment, employment, and international trade, attributing this downturn to the uncertainty surrounding Brexit.
June 2016: Cameron Announces Referendum Date
In February 2016, David Cameron addressed the House of Commons and revealed June 23, 2016, as the date for the EU referendum.
June 2016: Brexit Referendum and Cameron's Resignation
Following the UK's decision to leave the EU in the June 2016 referendum, Prime Minister David Cameron resigned.
June 2016: Brexit Referendum
In June 2016, the UK held a referendum to decide whether to leave or remain in the European Union.
June 2016: UK Votes to Leave the EU
The UK voted to leave the EU in June 2016 with a 51.9% majority, leading to David Cameron's resignation and Theresa May becoming Prime Minister.
June 2016: Brexit Referendum and Rise of New Jargon
The aftermath of the June 2016 referendum, in which the UK voted to leave the EU, witnessed the emergence and widespread adoption of new terminology related to Brexit.
July 2016: Decline in Non-British EU Nurse Registrations with NHS
Following the Brexit referendum in June 2016, there was a notable decrease in the number of non-British EU nurses registering with the NHS, dropping from 1,304 in July 2016 to 46 in April 2017.
July 2016: Department for International Trade Established
Following the Brexit vote, Prime Minister Theresa May established the Department for International Trade (DIT) in July 2016 to negotiate and manage the UK's trade relationships with non-EU countries.
July 2016: Outcome of the Referendum and Cameron's Resignation
The results of the referendum, held on June 23, 2016, showed that 51.89% voted to leave the EU (Leave) while 48.11% voted to remain (Remain). Following the outcome, David Cameron resigned as Prime Minister on July 13, 2016, and was succeeded by Theresa May. A petition for a second referendum garnered over four million signatures but was rejected by the government.
October 2016: Theresa May Announces "Great Repeal Bill"
In October 2016, then-Prime Minister Theresa May announced the government's intention to introduce a "Great Repeal Bill" as a central part of the UK's withdrawal from the European Union. This bill aimed to repeal the European Communities Act 1972, which had incorporated EU law into the UK legal system, and to convert existing EU law into domestic law, providing legal continuity during the Brexit process.
October 2016: Theresa May Announces Article 50 Trigger Date
Prime Minister Theresa May declared in October 2016 that Britain would initiate Article 50 in March 2017, aiming to begin the formal process of leaving the EU.
November 2016: "Brexit" Declared Word of the Year
In November 2016, the Collins English Dictionary recognized the significance of "Brexit" by selecting it as the word of the year, reflecting its pervasive presence in public discourse.
2016: Initial Positive Sentiment Towards Brexit
YouGov polling data indicated that public perception of Brexit's benefits was initially positive in 2016, gradually declining in the years following the referendum.
2016: Contrasting Public Opinion on EU Membership (1975 vs. 2016)
Interestingly, there appears to be no correlation between the support for the UK to leave the European Communities (EC) in the 1975 referendum and the support for leaving the European Union in the 2016 referendum. This suggests a shift in public opinion over time and highlights the complex factors that influenced voting decisions in both referendums.
2016: Scottish Voters Oppose Brexit in Referendum
In 2016, during the UK's referendum on EU membership, 62% of Scottish voters opposed leaving the EU.
2016: Initial Decline in Brexit Support
Following the Brexit referendum, public support for leaving the EU saw an initial dip, with opinions becoming more evenly split by late 2016.
2016: Office for Budget Responsibility Forecasts Brexit Impact on Productivity
Following the 2016 Brexit referendum, the Office for Budget Responsibility projected that the new trade agreement between the UK and the EU could potentially lead to a 4% reduction in British productivity compared to a scenario where the UK had remained in the EU.
2016: Growing Euroscepticism Leads to Second Referendum
Despite growing opposition to European integration, it wasn't until 2016 that a second referendum on EU membership was held.
2016: David Cameron Holds Brexit Referendum
Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron held the Brexit referendum in 2016, fulfilling a campaign promise.
2016: EU Fishing Fleets' Activity in British Waters
As of 2016, the combined EU fishing fleets landed approximately 6 million tonnes of fish per year, with about half coming from British waters, highlighting the significance of fishing rights in the Brexit negotiations.
2016: House of Lords Reports on Brexit
In 2016, the House of Lords began publishing a series of reports on various topics related to Brexit.
January 2017: Supreme Court Rules on Article 50 Invocation
In January 2017, the UK Supreme Court ruled in the Miller case that triggering Article 50 required parliamentary authorization, leading to the introduction and passage of the European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017.
February 2017: Leave.EU Fined for Campaign Violations
In February 2017, the Leave.EU campaign group faced a £50,000 fine for sending unauthorized marketing messages during the Brexit referendum.
March 2017: UK Triggers Article 50
Theresa May's government formally notified the EU of the UK's intention to withdraw on 29 March 2017, triggering Article 50.
March 2017: UK Triggers Article 50
The UK formally began the process of withdrawing from the EU by invoking Article 50 on 29 March 2017.
March 2017: Scottish Parliament Votes for Another Independence Referendum
In March 2017, the Scottish Parliament voted in favor of holding a second independence referendum. This decision was influenced by Scotland's vote to remain in the EU during the Brexit referendum, which contrasted with the overall UK vote to leave.
March 2017: Institute for Government Report Highlights Brexit Legislative Challenges
In March 2017, a report by the Institute for Government, a prominent UK think tank, shed light on the significant legislative challenges associated with Brexit. The report emphasized the need for extensive primary and secondary legislation to address gaps in policy areas such as customs, immigration, and agriculture, highlighting the sheer scale of the task facing the UK government in disentangling itself from EU law and establishing new regulatory frameworks.
March 2017: Theresa May Plans to Trigger Article 50
Following the referendum, Prime Minister Theresa May stated her intention to trigger Article 50 in March 2017 to allow for preparation ahead of the negotiations.
April 2017: Theresa May Calls Snap General Election
In April 2017, Theresa May called for an early general election, aiming to bolster her position in the Brexit negotiations. The election took place on June 8, 2017, with various parties presenting their Brexit strategies.
April 2017: Continued Decline in EU Nurse Registrations
The decline in non-British EU nurses registering with the NHS continued into April 2017, reaching a low of 46, signaling potential workforce challenges for the healthcare system.
June 2017: Conservatives and DUP Form Confidence and Supply Agreement
On June 26, 2017, the Conservative Party and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) established a confidence and supply agreement. The DUP pledged to support the Conservatives in crucial parliamentary votes, securing parliamentary stability for the government. The deal included increased funding for Northern Ireland and highlighted shared stances on Brexit and national security.
June 2017: Snap Election Results in Conservative Minority Government
Theresa May called a snap election in June 2017, which resulted in a Conservative minority government.
June 2017: Brexit Negotiations Commence
Formal Brexit negotiations between the UK and the EU began on June 19, 2017, focusing on key areas such as citizens' rights, financial settlements, and the Irish border.
June 2017: Hung Parliament Following Snap Election
A snap election in June 2017 resulted in a hung parliament, further complicating the Brexit process.
July 2017: Introduction of the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill in UK Parliament
On July 13, 2017, the UK government introduced the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill in the House of Commons, marking a significant step in the legislative process of Brexit. This bill, initially known as the "Great Repeal Bill," sought to repeal the European Communities Act 1972 and to provide legal certainty by converting existing EU law into domestic law upon the UK's withdrawal from the EU.
September 2017: European Union (Withdrawal) Bill Passes First Vote in UK Parliament
In September 2017, the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill, a cornerstone of the UK's Brexit legislation, successfully passed its first vote in the House of Commons. This vote, representing an important hurdle in the legislative process, indicated growing parliamentary support for the bill's aim of ensuring legal continuity and stability during the UK's withdrawal from the EU.
October 2017: Nuclear Safeguards Act Presented to Parliament
The Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018, concerning the UK's withdrawal from Euratom, was presented to Parliament in October 2017. The act aimed to ensure nuclear materials are used solely for civil purposes and to comply with international agreements.
November 2017: Electoral Commission Investigates Russian Interference
The Electoral Commission initiated an investigation in November 2017 to examine allegations of Russia's attempts to influence public opinion regarding the Brexit referendum through social media platforms.
December 2017: Partial Brexit Agreement Reached
A preliminary agreement on certain aspects of Brexit was achieved in December 2017. The agreement addressed the Irish border, citizens' rights, and provided an estimated financial settlement. However, it was contingent on a broader agreement being finalized.
December 2017: Pro-EU Groups Fined for Campaign Finance Breaches
The Electoral Commission imposed fines on two pro-EU groups in December 2017: the Liberal Democrats (£18,000) and Open Britain (£1,250) for violating campaign finance rules during the Brexit referendum.
2017: Snap Elections and Brexit Uncertainty
The Brexit negotiations led to political uncertainty and two snap elections in 2017 and 2019.
2017: House of Lords Reports on Brexit
The House of Lords continued publishing reports on Brexit-related subjects in 2017.
2017: Fluctuations in Brexit Support
Support for Brexit experienced fluctuations, rising again to a plurality until the 2017 general election.
2017: Cameron's Bloomberg Speech and Promise of a Referendum
In January 2013, yielding to pressure from Conservative MPs and the rising popularity of UKIP, David Cameron pledged in his Bloomberg speech to hold an in-out referendum on EU membership if his party won the next general election.
2017: Impact of Brexit on International Agreements
In 2017, analysis revealed that the UK's departure from the EU would affect its participation in approximately 759 international agreements with 168 non-EU countries, highlighting the broad implications of Brexit on the UK's global standing.
2017: Analysis of the Leave Vote
In 2017, a study revealed that areas with lower incomes, high unemployment, a history of manufacturing employment, and a less educated population were more likely to have voted Leave in the EU referendum. Additionally, areas that experienced a significant influx of Eastern European migrants, particularly low-skilled workers, and were impacted by economic decline, high suicide and drug-related death rates, and austerity measures implemented in 2010 also tended to favor Leave.
2017: Legal Challenges to Brexit's Constitutional Basis
Following the "Miller case" and the 2017 Notification Act, legal battles ensued, aiming to clarify the constitutional grounds of Brexit.
2017: DIT Expansion and Trade Negotiations
By 2017, the Department for International Trade had expanded its team of trade negotiators to approximately 200, working under the leadership of then-Secretary of State for International Trade Liam Fox, to secure new trade deals for the UK.
January 2018: Leaked Brexit Analysis Shows Economic Downturn
In January 2018, a British government analysis on the potential impacts of Brexit was leaked, revealing that the UK's economic growth would likely be negatively impacted by 2-8% over the 15 years following Brexit. The analysis highlighted concerns about London's future as a global financial hub due to potential restrictions on passporting rights with the EU.
January 2018: UK and France Sign Sandhurst Treaty on Migration
In January 2018, the UK and France signed the Sandhurst Treaty, which aimed to streamline the processing of migrants attempting to enter the UK from Calais, France. This agreement aimed to reduce processing times from six months to one month. As part of this agreement, the UK pledged additional funding to bolster border security measures at the English Channel.
March 2018: Provisional Brexit Transition Agreement
In March 2018, the UK and EU provisionally agreed on a 21-month transition period and its terms.
March 2018: Scottish Parliament Passes Scottish Continuity Bill
In March 2018, the Scottish Parliament passed the Scottish Continuity Bill, aiming to retain devolved powers within Scotland post-Brexit. This move was driven by perceived delays in negotiations with the British government regarding the distribution of powers after Brexit.
May 2018: Leave.EU Receives Hefty Fine for Overspending
Leave.EU was hit with a significant fine of £70,000 in May 2018 for exceeding spending limits and providing inaccurate reports on loans received from Arron Banks, totaling £6 million.
June 2018: Irish Border Question Stalemate
In June 2018, Irish Taoiseach Leo Varadkar highlighted the lack of progress on the Irish border issue, particularly regarding the EU's proposed backstop.
June 2018: Withdrawal Act Becomes Law, Allows for Various Brexit Outcomes
In June 2018, the European Union (Withdrawal) Act, a crucial piece of legislation paving the way for the UK's departure from the EU, came into effect. This act notably allowed for a range of potential Brexit outcomes, including the possibility of no negotiated settlement with the EU. It granted the UK government the authority to determine the precise date and time of the UK's exit (known as "exit day") through a statutory instrument, aligning it with the termination of EU treaties' applicability to the UK.
June 2018: European Union (Withdrawal) Act Receives Royal Assent
In June 2018, the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill, having completed its passage through both houses of Parliament, received royal assent, marking its official enactment as law. The act provided the legal framework for the UK's departure from the EU, addressing key issues such as citizens' rights, the financial settlement, and the Irish border.
July 2018: Vote Leave Fined for Campaign Finance Irregularities
In July 2018, Vote Leave faced a fine of £61,000 due to overspending, failing to disclose shared finances with BeLeave, and lack of cooperation with investigators.
July 2018: Chequers Plan and Cabinet Resignations
The UK government's Chequers plan, outlining its post-Brexit relationship goals, was released in July 2018. The plan aimed to preserve British access to the single market for goods while allowing for an independent trade policy. However, it sparked controversy and led to cabinet resignations, including those of Brexit Secretary David Davis and Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson.
October 2018: EU Sets Negotiation Deadline
EU negotiators set an October 2018 deadline for reaching an agreement with the UK, emphasizing the need for a resolution within the two-year timeframe stipulated by Article 50.
November 2018: Withdrawal Agreement Rejected
The UK and EU reached a withdrawal agreement in November 2018, but the British parliament voted against it.
November 2018: Draft Withdrawal Agreement and Resignation
On November 13, 2018, UK and EU negotiators reached a draft withdrawal agreement, which UK Prime Minister Theresa May's cabinet endorsed. However, Brexit Secretary Dominic Raab resigned, citing "fatal flaws" in the agreement.
December 2018: ECJ Ruling on Unilateral Withdrawal
On December 10, 2018, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its withdrawal notification under specific conditions: it must still be a member, have no withdrawal agreement in place, and the decision must be "unequivocal and unconditional" and follow a "democratic process."
December 2018: EU Unveils "No-Deal" Contingency Plan
The EU Commission announced its "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in December 2018, outlining measures to mitigate disruptions in the event of the UK leaving the EU without a withdrawal agreement.
December 2018: Brexit Deal Vote Postponement
Facing likely defeat, Prime Minister May postponed the UK Parliament vote on her Brexit deal on December 10, 2018, despite earlier confirmation that it would proceed.
2018: Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018
The Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018, relating to withdrawal from Euratom, came into effect.
2018: European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 marked a significant shift in the UK's legal landscape. It ended the supremacy of EU law over British law and initiated the process of converting EU law into British law as "retained EU law." This act granted the British parliament and devolved legislatures the authority to determine the future of EU-derived legislation, signifying a pivotal step in the UK's departure from the EU.
2018: UK Government Proposes Skills-Based Immigration System
In 2018, the UK government released a white paper proposing a "skills-based immigration system" intended to prioritize skilled migrants in the wake of Brexit and the end of free movement from the EU.
2018: European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
In 2018, the UK Parliament enacted the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, a pivotal piece of legislation that laid the groundwork for the country's departure from the European Union. This act aimed to ensure legal continuity and address key separation issues in anticipation of the UK's withdrawal.
2018: Spain Reasserts Territorial Claim on Gibraltar
Following the Brexit referendum, Spain renewed its longstanding claim on the territory of Gibraltar. To prevent this issue from hindering Brexit negotiations, Spain and the UK agreed to treat the Gibraltar dispute separately from the broader Brexit talks.
2018: European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 was passed, retaining relevant EU law as domestic law in the UK.
January 2019: Withdrawal Act Sets Deadline for Brexit Negotiations Progress
The Withdrawal Act, which came into effect in June 2018, established January 21, 2019, as a critical deadline for the UK government to demonstrate substantial progress in Brexit negotiations with the European Union. This provision aimed to provide clarity on the path forward, particularly regarding the withdrawal arrangements and the framework for a future UK-EU relationship.
January 2019: Withdrawal Agreement Rejected
The UK House of Commons decisively rejected the Brexit withdrawal agreement by a historic majority on January 15, 2019.
February 2019: Parliamentary Committee Calls for Inquiry into Brexit Vote
The parliamentary Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee urged an inquiry in February 2019 to investigate potential "foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and data sharing" related to the Brexit referendum.
March 2019: Brexit Postponement Request
On March 20, 2019, Prime Minister May formally requested the European Council to postpone Brexit until June 30, 2019.
March 2019: Withdrawal Act Sets March 29, 2019, as Default Brexit Date
The Withdrawal Act, passed in 2018, initially set March 29, 2019, as the default date for the UK's departure from the European Union. This provision, aligned with the two-year timeframe stipulated in Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union, established a clear deadline for the completion of negotiations and the UK's exit from the bloc, unless an extension was agreed upon.
March 2019: Second Defeat of Withdrawal Agreement
Prime Minister May's proposal for a March 12, 2019 vote on the withdrawal agreement, just 17 days before the Brexit deadline, was defeated, marking the second time the deal was rejected.
March 2019: EU Settlement Scheme Begins
The EU Settlement Scheme, designed to allow EU and EEA citizens residing in the UK to continue living there after Brexit, commenced in March 2019.
March 2019: Withdrawal Act Sets March 29, 2019, as Default Brexit Date
The Withdrawal Act, passed in 2018, initially set March 29, 2019, as the default date for the UK's departure from the European Union. This provision, aligned with the two-year timeframe stipulated in Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union, established a clear deadline for the completion of negotiations and the UK's exit from the bloc, unless an extension was agreed upon.
March 2019: Article 50 Triggered, Setting Brexit Date
Theresa May formally triggered Article 50 on March 29, 2019, by delivering the invocation letter to European Council President Donald Tusk, setting March 29, 2019, as the initial withdrawal date.
March 2019: Brexit Deadline Delayed
The original Brexit deadline of 29 March 2019 was delayed due to a deadlock in the British parliament.
March 2019: Third Meaningful Vote Requirement
On March 18, 2019, the Speaker of the House of Commons ruled that a third meaningful vote on the Brexit deal could only occur if the motion was substantially different from the previous ones, citing historical parliamentary precedents.
March 2019: British Parliament Votes to Delay Brexit
In March 2019, the British Parliament voted in favor of requesting the EU to delay the Brexit deadline to June, and subsequently to October. This decision reflected the ongoing challenges in reaching a withdrawal agreement that could garner sufficient support.
March 2019: UK's Proposed Tariff Plan Draws Criticism
In March 2019, the British government's plan to eliminate many import tariffs in a no-deal Brexit scenario was met with criticism from industry groups and concerns about potential violations of WTO rules.
March 2019: Record-Breaking Petition to Revoke Article 50
A petition urging the British government to revoke Article 50 and remain in the EU garnered over 6.1 million signatures in March 2019, highlighting the growing sentiment against Brexit.
April 2019: Brexit Date Change and Extension Approval
After addressing legal concerns, the UK Parliament approved the statutory instrument to change the Brexit exit date to May 22, 2019, if a withdrawal deal was approved, or April 12, 2019, if not.
April 2019: UK Amends Withdrawal Act, Changes "Exit Day" to October 31, 2019
In April 2019, the UK government amended the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, shifting the designated "exit day" from March 29 to October 31, 2019. This amendment aimed to provide additional time for negotiations with the EU and to prevent a no-deal Brexit at the original deadline.
April 2019: Brexit Extension to October 2019
With the UK set to leave the EU on April 12, 2019, due to Parliament's failure to pass the Withdrawal Agreement, a further extension until October 31, 2019, was secured after late-night negotiations in Brussels on April 10, 2019.
May 2019: Second Brexit Extension Option
The European Council's second Brexit extension option set a potential departure date of May 22, 2019, if UK MPs approved the withdrawal agreement. This date, just before the start of European Parliament elections, aimed to provide a clear deadline for decision-making.
June 2019: Brexit Extension Options
Following Prime Minister May's request, the European Council offered two alternative Brexit extension options on March 22, 2019. The first stipulated a possible Brexit date of April 12, 2019, with or without a deal, if MPs rejected May's deal, or a further extension request and participation in the 2019 European Parliament elections. The second option set a Brexit date of May 22, 2019, if MPs approved the deal.
July 2019: Boris Johnson Becomes Prime Minister
Boris Johnson assumed the role of UK Prime Minister on July 24, 2019, prompting a shift in the EU's stance on Brexit negotiations.
September 2019: European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019
The UK Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019, which received Royal Assent on September 9, 2019. This act mandated the Prime Minister to request a third extension if no agreement was reached at the next European Council meeting in October 2019.
October 2019: UK's "Exit Day" from EU Set for October 31, 2019
In April 2019, the UK government amended the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, shifting the designated "exit day" from March 29 to October 31, 2019. This amendment aimed to provide additional time for negotiations with the EU and to prevent a no-deal Brexit at the original deadline.
October 2019: Revised Withdrawal Agreement Reached
In October 2019, a pivotal moment occurred when the British government and the EU successfully negotiated a revised withdrawal agreement. This agreement included new provisions specifically addressing the complex issue of the Irish border, aiming to prevent a hard border between Northern Ireland (part of the UK) and the Republic of Ireland (an EU member state).
October 2019: Boris Johnson Secures Revised Withdrawal Agreement
In October 2019, then-Prime Minister Boris Johnson secured a revised withdrawal agreement with the European Union. This agreement, seen as a breakthrough in the Brexit negotiations, aimed to address the controversial issue of the Irish border and pave the way for an orderly withdrawal.
October 2019: Third Brexit Extension Granted
On October 28, 2019, the EU agreed to a third Brexit extension, setting a new withdrawal deadline of January 31, 2020. This followed the UK's inability to secure a deal by the previous deadline.
October 2019: European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act Introduced
The UK government first introduced the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act in October 2019 to ratify the Brexit Withdrawal Agreement. The bill lapsed but was reintroduced, eventually receiving Royal Assent in January 2020.
October 2019: Brexit Extension Terms
The terms of the extension to October 31, 2019, stipulated that Brexit would occur on the first day of the following month if the Withdrawal Agreement passed before October. Otherwise, the UK was obligated to hold European Parliament elections in May or leave the EU on June 1 without a deal.
October 2019: Shifting Public Opinion on Brexit
By October 2019, public opinion on Brexit showed a trend toward favoring remaining in the EU, with polls suggesting a potential Remain majority if a second referendum were held. Factors influencing this shift included changing demographics and voter remorse.
October 2019: Revised Withdrawal Agreement
Following Boris Johnson's appointment and discussions with EU leaders, a revised withdrawal agreement, including a new Northern Ireland Protocol and technical adjustments, was reached on October 17, 2019. This agreement, endorsed by both the British government and the EU Commission, required ratification by the European Parliament and UK Parliament.
December 2019: UK Parliament Passes European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020
Following the Conservative Party's victory in the December 2019 general election, the UK Parliament swiftly passed the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020. This legislation, approved by a comfortable margin, formally ratified the withdrawal agreement negotiated by Boris Johnson's government with the European Union, solidifying the legal basis for the UK's departure from the EU.
December 2019: 2019 UK General Election Campaign
In the lead-up to the December 2019 UK general election, various political parties outlined their stances on Brexit. The Conservative Party, led by Boris Johnson, campaigned on a promise to "get Brexit done" by implementing the withdrawal agreement negotiated in October 2019. The Labour Party, under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership, proposed renegotiating the existing deal and holding another referendum. Other parties, including the Liberal Democrats, SNP, DUP, Plaid Cymru, and the Green Party, presented different approaches, ranging from revoking Article 50 to holding a second referendum. The Brexit Party advocated for leaving the EU without a deal.
December 2019: Boris Johnson Wins Election
The Conservative Party, led by Boris Johnson, won a majority in the December 2019 general election.
2019: Ireland/Northern Ireland Protocol Agreed to Address Border Concerns
In 2019, following Brexit, the UK and EU reached an agreement known as the Ireland/Northern Ireland Protocol to address concerns about the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. This protocol aimed to avoid a hard border to protect the Good Friday Agreement.
2019: Brexit's Potential Impact on the NHS
A study conducted in early 2019 suggested that Brexit could negatively affect the National Health Service (NHS) by potentially reducing its workforce, creating uncertainty regarding healthcare for British citizens residing in the EU, and jeopardizing access to essential medical resources.
2019: Second Snap Election Amidst Brexit Deadlock
A second snap election was held in 2019 as the UK grappled with the complexities of Brexit and its withdrawal agreement.
2019: British Firms Increase Offshoring to EU After Brexit Referendum
A 2019 analysis revealed that following the 2016 Brexit referendum, there was a significant increase in British firms moving operations to EU countries. Conversely, the analysis also showed a decrease in new investments made by European firms in the UK.
2019: European Agencies Relocate from London Due to Brexit
In anticipation of Brexit, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and the European Banking Authority (EBA) decided to relocate their headquarters from London in 2019. The EMA moved to Amsterdam, while the EBA moved to Paris.
January 2020: UK Enters Transition Period After Leaving EU
Following its departure from the European Union on January 31, 2020, the United Kingdom entered a transition period designed to provide continuity and stability while the two sides negotiated their future relationship. During this period, which lasted for the remainder of 2020, existing trade arrangements, travel rules, and freedom of movement regulations remained largely unchanged.
January 2020: UK Leaves the EU, Transition Period Begins
The UK left the EU at the end of 31 January 2020 CET, entering a transition period to negotiate its future relationship with the EU.
January 2020: European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act Receives Royal Assent
The European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act, which enshrined the Brexit Withdrawal Agreement into UK law, received Royal Assent in January 2020, just days before the UK's official exit from the EU.
January 2020: UK Parliament Breaks Brexit Deadlock and Paves Way for Withdrawal
The December 2019 UK general election yielded a decisive victory for Boris Johnson and the Conservative Party, who secured a substantial majority in Parliament. This outcome effectively broke the political deadlock that had characterized the Brexit process, ending the possibility of another referendum on the withdrawal agreement. With a clear mandate to "get Brexit done," the government moved swiftly to ratify the agreement and set the stage for the UK's departure from the EU on January 31, 2020.
January 2020: UK's Membership in EU Ends After 47 Years
On January 31, 2020, at 11 p.m. GMT, the United Kingdom's membership in the European Union officially ended, marking a historic moment after 47 years of participation in the bloc. This departure, triggered by the outcome of the 2016 referendum and years of complex negotiations, ushered in a new chapter for both the UK and the EU.
January 2020: European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 Becomes Law
On January 23, 2020, the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 received royal assent, officially becoming law in the United Kingdom. This milestone marked a pivotal moment in the Brexit process, solidifying the legal framework for the UK's exit from the EU and setting the stage for the country's departure on January 31, 2020.
January 2020: UK Leaves the EU
The UK officially left the EU on 31 January 2020, after a withdrawal deal was passed by Parliament.
January 2020: Brexit Officially Takes Place
At 23:00 GMT on 31 January 2020, Brexit officially took place, marking the UK's withdrawal from the European Union.
January 2020: New 'Exit Day' in British Law
After the third Brexit extension was granted, the UK amended its 'exit day' in law to the new deadline of January 31, 2020, via a statutory instrument on October 30, 2019.
January 2020: UK's "Exit Day" from EU Set for January 31, 2020
After much anticipation and several delays, January 31, 2020, was formally designated as the UK's "exit day" from the European Union. This date marked the culmination of the UK's withdrawal process under Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union, signifying the end of its membership in the bloc.
January 2020: UK Ratifies Withdrawal Agreement and Leaves the EU
A defining moment arrived in January 2020 as the UK officially ratified the withdrawal agreement, followed by its ratification by the EU. This set the stage for the agreement to come into effect on January 31, 2020, marking the UK's formal departure from the EU.
February 2020: Brexit and the End of the Transition Period
Following Brexit, a transition period began in February 2020, during which the UK continued to participate in some EU institutions while negotiating their future relationship.
March 2020: UK Exits European Investment Bank, Remaining Members Increase Capital Subscriptions
As of March 2020, the UK was no longer a shareholder in the European Investment Bank (EIB) due to Brexit. To maintain the same level of subscribed capital, the remaining EIB member states proportionally increased their capital contributions. Despite the UK's departure, the EIB retained its AAA credit rating.
June 2020: Merkel Urges EU to Prepare for Potential Brexit Trade Deal Failure
German Chancellor Angela Merkel stressed the importance of the EU preparing for the possibility of unsuccessful Brexit trade talks with the UK in June 2020.
July 2020: Parliamentary Report Accuses Government of Avoiding Russian Interference Investigation
In July 2020, the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament released a report accusing the UK government of deliberately refraining from investigating potential Russian interference in the Brexit referendum. The report, however, did not conclude whether Russian information operations had affected the outcome.
August 2020: Challenges and Developments in Transportation and Logistics Post-Brexit
By August 2020, the UK faced challenges in implementing its post-Brexit IT system for goods movements, while new ferry routes between Ireland and mainland Europe emerged, and discussions regarding aviation regulations continued.
December 2020: UK and EU Reach Post-Brexit Trade Agreement
After months of intense negotiations, the United Kingdom and the European Union announced a post-Brexit trade agreement on December 24, 2020. This landmark deal, reached just days before the end of the transition period, aimed to establish a new framework for trade and cooperation between the two sides, averting a potentially chaotic no-deal scenario.
December 2020: Spain and UK Reach Agreement on Gibraltar Post-Brexit
In December 2020, Spain and the UK reached a preliminary agreement regarding the post-Brexit status of Gibraltar. Both countries agreed to collaborate with the European Commission to formalize the agreement into a treaty.
December 2020: EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement Signed
The EU and UK signed a Trade and Cooperation Agreement on 30 December 2020, outlining their future relationship post-Brexit.
December 2020: End of the Transition Period
The transition period, during which the UK remained subject to EU law, ended on 31 December 2020 CET.
2020: Pollsters Begin Gauging Support for Rejoining EU
Starting in 2020, pollsters began incorporating questions about a potential second referendum on rejoining the EU, reflecting the ongoing debate about the UK's future relationship with the bloc.
2020: Trade Dips Amidst Global Lockdowns
In 2020, global lockdowns, partly influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic, led to a decline in trade between the United Kingdom and the European Union.
2020: UK Leaves Common Agricultural Policy and Common Fisheries Policy
In 2020, Brexit led to the UK's departure from the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). This allowed the UK to establish its own agriculture and fisheries policies, replacing the CAP with the Agriculture Act 2020 and gaining control over its fishing waters.
January 2021: Provisional Application of Trade Agreement
The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was provisionally applied from 1 January 2021.
May 2021: Trade Agreement Comes into Force
The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement formally came into force on 1 May 2021.
July 2021: Brexit Contributes to UK Fuel Crisis
In July 2021, Brexit was identified as a contributing factor to the UK's fuel crisis, which was marked by panic buying and fuel shortages. Brexit exacerbated an existing shortage of HGV drivers, further disrupting the supply chain.
July 2021: UK Postpones Full Implementation of Post-Brexit Import Controls
Citing concerns about supply chain disruptions and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the UK government decided to postpone the full implementation of post-Brexit import controls, originally scheduled for July 2021. This delay aimed to provide businesses with more time to adapt to the new trading environment and to mitigate potential economic disruptions.
December 2021: Economic Impact of Brexit Debated Amidst Pandemic
In December 2021, economists acknowledged the challenge of disentangling the economic effects of Brexit from the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, with some suggesting that the pandemic had masked the true economic consequences of Brexit.
May 2022: Majority View Brexit Negatively
A May 2022 poll revealed that most respondents believed Brexit had gone badly, signaling a decline in public perception of its benefits.
June 2022: EU Nationality in the NHS Workforce
By June 2022, the number of NHS staff recording an EU nationality had increased to 70,735, indicating a rise in EU nationals working in the NHS despite Brexit and the end of free movement.
2022: UK-EU Trade Rebounds Post-Brexit
By 2022, trade between the UK and the EU had not only recovered from the dip in 2020 but had also surpassed pre-Brexit levels, defying initial forecasts of a decline.
2022: UK Gradually Phases in Post-Brexit Import Controls
Throughout 2022, the UK government gradually phased in post-Brexit import controls on goods arriving from the European Union. This phased approach, which included postponements and adjustments, reflected the complexities of implementing new border procedures and the need to balance trade facilitation with regulatory requirements.
January 2023: Poll Shows Growing Regret Over Brexit
A January 2023 poll indicated that 54% of respondents in the UK believed the country was wrong to leave the EU, further illustrating the growing sentiment of Brexit regret.
July 2023: Majority Favor Rejoining EU
An average of polls conducted in June and July 2023 revealed that 58% of UK voters supported rejoining the EU, indicating a significant shift in public opinion since the 2016 referendum.
2023: Brexit Linked to Cost-of-Living Crisis and Job Losses
In 2023, Brexit was identified as a significant factor contributing to a cost-of-living crisis in the UK. Reports indicated that the average UK citizen was approximately £2,000 worse off financially due to Brexit, with Londoners facing a greater impact at nearly £3,400 worse off. Additionally, Brexit was linked to a substantial reduction in UK real Gross Value Added.
January 11, 2024: London Mayor's Office Reports on Brexit's Negative Economic Impact
On January 11, 2024, the London Mayor's Office published a release highlighting the detrimental economic consequences of Brexit on London, citing an independent report by Cambridge Econometrics.