History of Tanzania in Timeline
Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is an East African nation in the Great Lakes region. It shares borders with Uganda, Kenya, Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and has a coastline on the Indian Ocean. With an estimated population of 67.5 million in 2024, it's the most populous country entirely south of the equator.
1905: Start of Maji Maji Rebellion
In 1905, the Maji Maji Rebellion, an uprising of several African tribes in German East Africa, began against the colonial authorities due to forced labour and deportation.
1907: End of Maji Maji Rebellion
In 1907, the Maji Maji Rebellion ended with bloody repression and famine, causing 300,000 deaths among the population.
June 1919: Treaty of Versailles signed
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919.
July 1919: Ratification of Anglo-Belgian agreement and Kionga Triangle Agreement
On July 16, 1919, the conference's Commission on Mandates ratified the Anglo-Belgian agreement and on July 12, 1919 agreed that the small Kionga Triangle would be given to Portuguese Mozambique.
August 1919: Acceptance of the Anglo-Belgian agreement
On August 7, 1919, the Supreme Council accepted the Anglo-Belgian agreement.
1948: Joined the East Africa High Commission
In 1948, Tanzania joined the East Africa High Commission (EAHC), following its membership in the East African Currency Board.
1952: Elizabeth II accedes to the British throne
In 1952, Elizabeth II acceded to the British throne.
1954: Formation of TANU
In 1954, Julius Nyerere transformed an organisation into the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU).
1960: Member of Frontline States
From 1960 to 1994, Tanzania was a member of the Frontline States (FLS), which aimed to end apartheid in Southern Africa.
1960: Start of Goodall's study of chimpanzee behaviour
In 1960, Jane Goodall's study of chimpanzee behaviour began in Gombe Stream National Park, western Tanzania.
1960: Nyerere becomes Minister
In 1960, Julius Nyerere became Minister of British-administered Tanganyika.
December 1961: End of British rule
On December 9, 1961, British rule ended in Tanganyika, and Tanganyika also joined the British Commonwealth.
1961: Nyerere becomes Prime Minister
In 1961, Julius Nyerere continued as prime minister when Tanganyika became independent.
1961: Tanganyika Independence
In 1961, Tanganyika achieved independence and joined the British Commonwealth.
1961: Joined the East African Common Services Organization
In 1961, Tanzania became part of the East African Common Services Organization (EACSO), continuing its regional integration efforts.
1961: CCM in power since independence
Since independence in 1961, Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) has held power.
December 1962: Tanganyika becomes a republic
On December 9, 1962, Tanganyika became a democratic republic under an executive president.
1962: Julius Nyerere presidency begins
In 1962, Julius Nyerere became the president of Tanzania.
1963: OAU Founding Member
In 1963, Tanganyika and Zanzibar, the predecessors of Tanzania, became founding members of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor to the African Union (AU).
April 1964: Union of Zanzibar and Tanganyika
On April 26, 1964, after the Zanzibar Revolution, Zanzibar merged with mainland Tanganyika.
1964: Child mortality rate at the founding of Tanzania
At the time of the foundation of the United Republic of Tanzania in 1964, the child mortality rate was 335 deaths per 1,000 live births.
1964: Circular No. 2
Before 2001, Tanzanian foreign policy was dictated by Circular No. 2 of 1964.
1964: Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar
In 1964, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the United Republic of Tanzania.
1964: Zanzibar Revolution
In 1964, thousands of Arabs and Indians were massacred during the Zanzibar Revolution.
1967: Policy of Foreign Affairs
Before 2001, Tanzanian foreign policy was dictated by the Policy of Foreign Affairs of 1967.
1967: Arusha Declaration
In 1967, Julius Nyerere's first presidency shifted left after the Arusha Declaration, which codified a commitment to socialism and Pan-Africanism.
1967: Elimination of Religious Surveys
In 1967, religious surveys were eliminated from government census reports in Tanzania.
1967: Start of decline in rural population percentage
The percentage of the population living in rural areas of Tanzania has been declining since at least 1967.
1970: China funds TAZARA Railway
From 1970, China financed and helped build the TAZARA Railway from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, to Kapiri-Mposhi, Zambia.
1972: Tingatinga's Death
After Tingatinga's death in 1972, other artists adopted and developed his style.
1972: Local government abolished
In 1972, local government on the mainland was abolished and replaced with direct rule from the central government.
1975: China helps build TAZARA Railway
Until 1975, China financed and helped build the TAZARA Railway from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, to Kapiri-Mposhi, Zambia.
1978: Uganda invades Tanzania
1983: Local government elections
In 1983, local government elections took place.
1984: Functioning councils started
In 1984, functioning councils started.
1985: Ali Hassan Mwinyi presidency begins
In 1985, Ali Hassan Mwinyi became the president of Tanzania.
1985: CEDAW Signed
In 1985, the Tanzanian government signed the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).
July 1992: Constitution amended
On July 1, 1992, Tanzania's constitution was amended, ending the one-party system.
1992: Constitution amended to allow multiple political parties
In 1992, the Constitution of Tanzania was amended to allow multiple political parties.
1992: Multi-party politics
Since multi-party politics in 1992, Chama cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo (Chadema) is the main opposition party in Tanzania.
1993: East African Co-operation
From 1993 to 2000, Tanzania was part of the East African Co-operation, which later re-established itself as the East African Community in 2000.
1993: Arusha Accords with Rwanda
In 1993, Tanzania played a mediating role and hosted the Arusha Accords with Rwanda, highlighting Tanzania's commitment to peace and unity since its independence.
1993: Broadcasting Services Act
The Broadcasting Services Act of 1993 allowed private broadcast networks and recording studios in Tanzania.
1994: Asian Community Population
As of 1994, the Asian community numbered 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar.
1994: Founding member of SADC
In 1994, Tanzania became a founding member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), succeeding the Frontline States (FLS).
1995: Benjamin Mkapa presidency begins
In 1995, Benjamin Mkapa became the president of Tanzania.
1995: First multi-party elections
In 1995, Tanzania held its first multi-party elections, where Chama Cha Mapinduzi won 186 seats and Benjamin Mkapa was elected president.
1996: Adoption of first science and technology policy
Tanzania's first "National Science and Technology Policy" was adopted in 1996.
1998: Vision 2025 published
In 1998, the Tanzanian government published "Vision 2025", aiming to transform the economy through science and technology.
1999: Local Government Reform Programme
In 1999, a Local Government Reform Programme was enacted by the National Assembly.
2000: Arusha Accords with Burundi
In 2000, Tanzania acted as a mediator and hosted the Arusha Accords with Burundi, demonstrating Tanzania's dedication to non-alignment, unity, and internal peace since gaining independence.
2000: Global Hunger Index
In 2000, the Global Hunger Index ranked the situation in Tanzania as "alarming" with a score of 42.
2001: New Foreign Policy
Foreign policies of Tanzania are in process of review to replace the current New Foreign Policy of 2001, which was the first official foreign policy of Tanzania.
2001: Founding member of the AU
In 2001, Tanzania became a founding member of the African Union (AU), succeeding the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).
2001: Bongo Flava Added to Music Genres
In 2001, bongo flava was added to the five music genres in Tanzania, as defined by BASATA.
2001: Principles of New Foreign Policy
The New Foreign Policy of 2001 has a foundation of seven principles: sovereignty, liberalism, good neighborliness, African unity, non-alignment, economic diplomacy, and global cooperation for economic development and peace.
2002: National Irrigation Master Plan
According to the 2002 National Irrigation Master Plan, 29.4 million hectares in Tanzania are suitable for irrigation farming.
2004: Conscript service obligation
As of 2004, the conscript service obligation in Tanzania's military was 2 years.
2004: Commercial gas production commenced
In 2004, commercial production of gas commenced from the Songo Songo Island field in the Indian Ocean, 30 years after its discovery.
2004: Tourism receipts
In 2004, overall receipts from tourism in Tanzania were US$1.74 billion.
2005: Increase in electricity generation
Between 2005 and 2012, Tanzania saw a 63 percent increase in electricity generation.
2005: Tourist arrivals
In 2005, 590,000 tourists arrived at Tanzania's borders.
2005: Jakaya Kikwete presidency begins
In 2005, Jakaya Kikwete became the president of Tanzania.
2005: EAC Customs Union
In 2005, the East African Community (EAC) established a customs union, creating a free trade zone among member states.
2005: Stunting rates in Mara and Dodoma
In 2005, the Mara district of Tanzania had a stunting rate of 46% in children under 5 years old, while Dodoma had a stunting rate of 50% in the same age group.
2007: Pew Research Centre survey on homosexuality
According to a 2007 Pew Research Centre survey, 95 percent of Tanzanians believed that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.
2007: Production of NAPAs
In 2007, Tanzania produced a National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs).
2007: Malaria Prevalence
In 2007, malaria prevalence among children aged 6 months to five years was highest in the Kagera Region (41.1 per cent) and lowest in the Arusha Region (0.1 per cent).
2007: Poverty rate
The 2019 World Bank report indicated that in the last 10 years, poverty in Tanzania reduced by 8 percentage points, from 34.4% in 2007 to 26.4% in 2018.
2008: Proposals for revising the National Science and Technology Policy
In 2008, UNESCO and Tanzanian government entities, under the One UN Initiative, formulated proposals to revise the "National Science and Technology Policy".
2008: Malaria Cases
In 2008, there were approximately 11.5 million cases of clinical malaria in Tanzania.
2008: Beginning of Great Recession
Tanzania weathered the Great Recession, which began in late 2008 or early 2009, relatively well due to strong gold prices and limited integration into global markets.
2009: Per capita GDP Growth
From 2009 through 2013, Tanzania's per capita GDP (based on constant local currency) grew an average of 3.5% per year.
2009: Beginning of Great Recession
Tanzania weathered the Great Recession, which began in late 2008 or early 2009, relatively well due to strong gold prices and limited integration into global markets.
2010: Tanzanian Fertility Rate Statistics
According to 2010 Tanzanian government statistics, the total fertility rate in Tanzania was 5.4 children born per woman.
2010: Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey
According to the 2010 Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey, 15 per cent of Tanzanian women had undergone female genital mutilation (FGM) and 72 per cent of Tanzanian men had been circumcised.
2010: R&D spending and researchers per million population
In 2010, Tanzania devoted 0.38% of GDP to research and development and had 69 researchers per million population.
2010: EAC Common Market Established
In 2010, a common market was established within the East African Community (EAC) to allow the free movement of labor, goods, people, capital, and services.
2010: Receipts from international tourists
In 2010, receipts from international tourists in Tanzania were US$1.255 billion.
2010: Stunting rates in Mara and Dodoma
In 2010, the Mara district of Tanzania saw a reduction in stunting to 31% in children under 5, while Dodoma saw an increase to 57% in the same age group.
2010: Undernourishment Rate
In 2010-12, the proportion of persons who were undernourished in Tanzania was worse than any other EAC country except Burundi.
2010: Leading causes of death in children
Prematurity and malaria were tied in 2010 as the leading causes of death in children under five years old.
2010: Discovery of natural gas resources
Since 2010, 25 to 30 trillion cubic feet of recoverable natural gas resources have been discovered in Tanzania, bringing the total reserves to over 43 trillion cubic feet by the end of 2013.
2010: Publication of the National Research and Development Policy
Tanzania's revised science policy, entitled "National Research and Development Policy", was published in 2010, recognizing the need to improve research prioritization and international cooperation.
June 2011: Hectares being irrigated
In June 2011, only 310,745 hectares in Tanzania were actually being irrigated, despite 29.4 million hectares being suitable for irrigation farming according to the 2002 National Irrigation Master Plan.
2011: Mobile phone subscriptions and Internet usage
As of 2011, Tanzania had 56 mobile telephone subscribers per 100 inhabitants, and approximately 12% of Tanzanians used the internet.
2011: Access to electric power
In 2011, only 15 percent of Tanzanians had access to electric power.
2011: PANITA initiative creation
In 2011, the Partnership for Nutrition in Tanzania (PANITA) was created by Save the Children with funding from UNICEF and Irish Aid.
April 2012: DART project phase one began
In April 2012, the first phase of the Dar Rapid Transit (DART) project, a rapid bus system in Dar es Salaam, began.
2012: Census results
According to the 2012 census, the total population of Tanzania was 44,928,923, with the under-15 age group representing 44.1% of the population.
2012: Life Expectancy at Birth
As of 2012, life expectancy at birth in Tanzania was 61 years.
2012: Improved Drinking Water and Sanitation
In 2012, 53 per cent of the population used improved drinking water sources and 12 per cent used improved sanitation facilities.
2012: Electricity Generation
In 2012, Tanzania generated 5.771 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity. Almost 18 percent of the electricity generated in 2012 was lost because of theft and transmission and distribution problems.
2012: Production of National Climate Change Strategy
In 2012, Tanzania produced a National Climate Change Strategy.
2012: Review of National Research and Development Policy
In 2012, Tanzania's "National Research and Development Policy" was reviewed.
2012: Growth of the agricultural sector
In 2012, the agricultural sector in Tanzania grew 4.3 percent, less than half of the Millennium Development Goal target of 10.8%.
2012: Increase in value of natural gas produced
In 2012, the value of natural gas production increased, leading to a US$52.2 million valuation in 2013, a 42.7 percent increase.
2012: Growth of Tanzanian banking industry
The total assets of the Tanzanian banking industry grew by 15 per cent from 2012 to 2013.
2013: Tanzanian banking industry assets
At the end of 2013, the total assets of the Tanzanian banking industry were TSh 19.5 trillion, a 15% increase over 2012.
2013: Value of natural gas produced
By the end of 2013, Tanzania's total reserves of recoverable natural gas resources had reached over 43 trillion cubic feet. The value of natural gas produced in 2013 was US$52.2 million, a 42.7 percent increase over 2012.
2013: Per capita GDP Growth
From 2009 through 2013, Tanzania's per capita GDP (based on constant local currency) grew an average of 3.5% per year.
2013: Electricity Generation
In 2013, Tanzania generated 6.013 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity, a 4.2 per cent increase over the 5.771 billion kWh generated in 2012.
2013: Further review of National Research and Development Policy
In 2013, Tanzania's "National Research and Development Policy" continued to be reviewed after the initial review in 2012.
2013: Global Hunger Index
In 2013, Tanzania's Global Hunger Index was worse than any other country in the East African Community (EAC) except Burundi.
2013: Agriculture's contribution to GDP
In 2013, agriculture accounted for 24.5 per cent of Tanzania's gross domestic product (GDP), provided 85% of exports, and employed half of the workforce.
2013: Industry and construction contribution to GDP
In 2013, industry and construction contributed 22.2 per cent of Tanzania's GDP, with mining contributing 3.3 per cent.
2013: Largest food and cash crops on the mainland
In 2013, maize was the largest food crop on the Tanzania mainland (5.17 million tonnes), and sugar was the largest cash crop (296,679 tonnes). Beef was the largest meat product (299,581 tonnes).
2013: Songo Songo gas production volume
In 2013, over 35 billion cubic feet of gas was produced from the Songo Songo Island field, with significant proven reserves.
2013: Composition of the House of Representatives
In 2013, the House of Representatives had 81 members: fifty elected members, five regional commissioners, the attorney general, ten members appointed by the president, and fifteen appointed female members.
2013: Growth of communications sector
In 2013, the communications sector was the fastest growing in Tanzania, expanding 22.8%, though it accounted for only 2.4% of GDP.
2013: Global average R&D spending
In 2013, the global average for research and development spending was 1.7% of GDP.
2013: Mnazi Bay gas field production
In 2013, the natural gas field in Mnazi Bay produced about one-seventh of the amount produced near Songo Songo Island and the gas is being used for electricity generation in Mtwara.
2013: Tourism employment and receipts
In 2013, tourism employed 11.0% of Tanzania's labour force (1,189,300 jobs), and overall receipts rose to US$4.48 billion. The most visited national park was Serengeti with 452,485 tourists in 2013.
2013: Maternal Mortality Rate
The maternal mortality rate in Tanzania in 2013 was estimated at 410 per 100,000 live births.
August 2014: TANESCO debt to Orca Exploration Group Inc.
As of August 27, 2014, TANESCO (Tanzania Electric Supply Company Limited) owed Orca Exploration Group Inc., the operator of the Songo Songo gas field.
2014: CIA World Factbook Religion Estimate
According to a 2014 estimate by the CIA World Factbook, 61.4% of the population was Christian and 35.2% was Muslim.
2014: Research publications per million inhabitants
In 2014, Tanzania had 15 research publications per million inhabitants in internationally catalogued journals.
2014: UN Human Development Index ranking
In 2014, according to the United Nation's Human Development Index, Tanzania ranked 159 out of 187 countries in poverty.
April 2015: Completion of offshore natural gas pipeline to Dar es Salaam
At the end of April 2015, a pipeline connecting offshore natural gas fields to Tanzania's commercial capital, Dar es Salaam, was completed.
October 2015: Magufuli won election
John Magufuli won the October 2015 presidential election.
December 2015: Completion of first phase of DART project
In December 2015, the first phase of the Dar Rapid Transit (DART) project was completed.
2015: Multidimensional poverty rate
According to the latest survey in 2015/2016, 57.1 percent of the Tanzanian population is considered to be affected by multidimensional poverty.
2015: Indian Community Population
As of 2015, the Indian community in Tanzania numbered 60,000.
2015: Maize price increase begins
From 2015 to 2017, the price of maize when bought wholesale more than tripled, from TSh 400/= per kilogramme to 1,253/= per kilogramme due to drought in East Africa.
2015: John Magufuli presidency begins
In 2015, John Magufuli became the president of Tanzania.
2015: Literacy Rate in Tanzania
In 2015, the literacy rate in Tanzania was 77.9% for people aged 15 and over.
2015: Gold production
Tanzania's gold production in 2015 was 46 metric tonnes.
May 2016: Launch of operations for first phase of DART project
In May 2016, the first phase of the Dar Rapid Transit (DART) project launched operations in Dar es Salaam.
2016: Multidimensional poverty rate
According to the latest survey in 2015/2016, 57.1 percent of the Tanzanian population is considered to be affected by multidimensional poverty.
2016: Expected increase in electricity generation capacity
In 2016, a gas pipeline from Mnazi Bay to Dar es Salaam was expected to allow Tanzania to double its electricity generation capacity to 3,000 megawatts.
2016: Tourism contribution to GDP and tourist arrivals
In 2016, travel and tourism contributed 17.5% of Tanzania's GDP, and receipts from international tourists rose to US$2 billion. There were 1,284,279 tourist arrivals at Tanzania's borders.
2017: Maize price peak
From 2015 to 2017, the price of maize when bought wholesale more than tripled, reaching 1,253/= per kilogramme.
2017: Tanzania's trading partners
In 2017, Tanzania's largest trading partners for its US$5.3 billion in exports were India, Vietnam, South Africa, Switzerland, and China, while its imports totaled US$8.17 billion, with India, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, China, and the United Arab Emirates being the biggest partners.
2017: Food shortages in rural vs urban areas
In 2017, a survey found that 84% of people in rural areas in Tanzania suffered food shortages over a 3-month period, compared to 64% of residents in cities.
2017: EAC Confederation Adopted
In 2017, all member states of the East African Community (EAC) adopted the confederation of EAC as a transitional precursor to the final federation.
2018: Access to electric power
In 2018, 35.2 per cent of Tanzanians had access to electric power, an increase from 15% in 2011.
2018: Tanzania's GNI per capita
In 2018, Tanzania's GNI per capita was US$1,020, rising to US$1,080 in 2019.
June 2019: Economic growth concerns
The Economist raised concerns about Tanzania's economic growth in the fiscal year to the end of June 2019, questioning discrepancies in tax revenue and bank lending.
December 2019: Tanzanian government annuls right to file cases at African Court
In December 2019, Amnesty International reported that the Tanzanian government annulled the right of NGOs and individuals to directly file cases against it at the Arusha-based African Court for Human and Peoples' Rights.
2019: Forest Landscape Integrity Index Score
In 2019, Tanzania had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.13/10, ranking it 54th globally.
2019: Global Innovation Index ranking
In 2019, Tanzania was ranked 97th in the Global Innovation Index.
2019: Tanzania's GNI per capita
In 2019, Tanzania's GNI per capita was US$1,080, a rise from US$1,020 in 2018.
2019: Bank loan growth and cement sales
In 2019, Tanzania's two biggest banks reported strong loan growth, and Twiga sold 6% more cement by volume than in 2018.
2019: World Bank report on poverty reduction
The 2019 World Bank report indicated that in the last 10 years, poverty in Tanzania reduced by 8 percentage points, from 34.4% in 2007 to 26.4% in 2018.
July 2020: Doubts about economic growth
In July 2020, The Economist raised doubts about official claims of economic growth in Tanzania.
October 2020: Magufuli re-elected
In October 2020, President Magufuli won a landslide victory and re-election, though the election was disputed.
November 2020: Magufuli declared winner
In November 2020, Magufuli was declared the winner for his second term as president with suspected election fraud.
December 2020: ACT-Wazalendo joins coalition government
In December 2020, The Alliance for Change and Transparency-Wazalendo (ACT-Wazalendo) joined a coalition government with Chama Cha Mapinduzi in Zanzibar.
2020: Poverty Rate in Tanzania
A report showed a reduction in poverty to 25.7% in Tanzania in 2020.
2020: ARDA Religious Data
As of 2020, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), 55.3% of the population is Christian and 31.5% is Muslim.
2020: Education Completion Rates
In 2020, 97% completed primary, 28.3% completed secondary, and 8% completed tertiary education.
2020: World Bank Declares Tanzania a Lower Middle Income Country
In 2020, the World Bank announced that Tanzania had risen from a low-income country to a lower-middle-income country, as its GNI per capita increased from US$1,020 in 2018 to US$1,080 in 2019.
2020: Cement sales increase
In the first six months of 2020, Twiga sold 8% more cement than in the same period in 2019.
2020: Singeli Becomes Mainstream
Since 2020, Singeli has become a mainstream genre in Tanzania.
2020: Recent influences on bongo flava
Since 2020, amapiano from South Africa and singeli from Tanzania have been a recent influence on bongo flava.
March 2021: Magufuli dies and Hassan becomes president
In March 2021, Magufuli died whilst serving in office, meaning that his vice president, Samia Suluhu Hassan, became the country's president.
March 2021: Death of President Magufuli and Succession of Samia Suluhu Hassan
On March 17, 2021, President John Magufuli died in office, and Vice President Samia Suluhu Hassan became Tanzania's first female president.
2021: Tanzania's GDP
As of 2021, according to the IMF, Tanzania's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $71 billion (nominal), or $218.5 billion on a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis. GDP per capita (PPP) was $3,574.
2021: Samia Hassan Suluhu presidency begins
In 2021, Samia Hassan Suluhu became the president of Tanzania.
January 2022: Tanzania ratified AfCFTA
On January 17, 2022, Tanzania ratified and joined the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), which is the largest free trade area in the world.
2024: Population estimate
According to a 2024 estimate, Tanzania has a population of around 67.5 million.
2024: Global Peace Index Ranking
According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Tanzania ranks as the 65th most peaceful country in the world.
2024: Proposed East African Monetary Union
The East African Monetary Union (EAMU) is proposed to be established in 2024, which aims to create a single common currency through the East African Central Bank.
January 21, 2025: Marburg Virus Outbreak
On January 21, 2025, Tanzania's President confirmed an outbreak of the Marburg virus.
2025: Projected economic losses due to malnutrition
Estimates predict that Tanzania stands to lose $20 billion by 2025 if nutrition within the country remains at its current level, as stated by UNICEF.
2025: Government's goal for electricity capacity
The Tanzanian government aims to increase its electricity generation capacity to at least 10,000 megawatts by 2025.
2025: Vision 2025 goal
The objective of the government's "Vision 2025" document (1998) was to "transform the economy into a strong, resilient and competitive one, buttressed by science and technology".
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