History of Elizabeth II in Timeline

Elizabeth II reigned as Queen of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth realms from 1952 until her death in 2022. She was queen regnant of 32 sovereign states and monarch of 15 at the time of her death. Her reign, lasting 70 years and 214 days, is the longest of any British monarch and the second-longest of any sovereign.

Sections (6)

Full Timeline Early Life & Education Career & Achievements Challenges & Struggles Controversies & Scandals Legacy & Impact

1922: Consultation with 1922 Committee

After Eden's resignation, Elizabeth consulted with Lord Salisbury, Lord Kilmuir, and the chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the appointment of Harold Macmillan as prime minister.

April 1926: Elizabeth II's Birth

Elizabeth II was born in April 1926. She would later become Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms.

Others born on this day/year

April 1926: Birth of Elizabeth

Elizabeth was born on April 21, 1926, at her maternal grandfather's home in London.

Others born on this day/year

1926: First official portrait photograph

In 1926, the first official portrait photograph of Elizabeth was taken by Marcus Adams.

1927: Royal Tour of Australia and New Zealand

In 1927, Elizabeth's parents toured Australia and New Zealand, but Elizabeth remained in Britain as her father thought she was too young.

1929: Visits to Grandfather During Illness

In 1929, Elizabeth's regular visits to her grandfather, George V, during his serious illness were credited with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.

1930: Birth of Princess Margaret

In 1930, Elizabeth's sole sibling, Princess Margaret, was born.

1933: First corgi

In 1933, Elizabeth's lifelong love of corgis began with Dookie, the first of many royal corgis.

1934: First Meeting With Prince Philip

Elizabeth first met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934. They were second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria.

1936: Abdication of Edward VIII

In 1936, Edward VIII abdicated, leading to Elizabeth's father becoming King George VI and Elizabeth becoming heir presumptive to the throne.

1936: Father accedes to the throne

In 1936, Elizabeth's father acceded to the throne upon the abdication of his brother Edward VIII, making the ten-year-old Princess Elizabeth the heir presumptive.

1937: Second Meeting With Prince Philip

Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, again in 1937. They were second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria.

July 1939: Meeting Prince Philip at Dartmouth

In July 1939, Elizabeth met Prince Philip at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth, and she said she fell in love with him, beginning their exchange of letters.

September 1939: Britain Enters WWII

In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, leading to discussions about evacuating Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret to Canada, which was rejected.

1939: Royal Tour of Canada and the United States

In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States, but Elizabeth remained in Britain as her father thought she was too young.

May 1940: Move to Windsor Castle

From February to May 1940, the princesses lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.

1943: First solo public appearance

In 1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards.

April 1944: Elizabeth's arms consisted of a lozenge

From April 1944 until her accession, Elizabeth's arms consisted of a lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. It was differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor rose and the first and third a cross of Saint George.

July 1944: Counsellor of State

In July 1944, Parliament changed the law so that Elizabeth could act as one of five counsellors of state in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad.

February 1945: Appointment in the Auxiliary Territorial Service

In February 1945, Elizabeth was appointed an honorary second subaltern in the Auxiliary Territorial Service, marking her active involvement in the war effort.

1946: Induction into the Gorsedd of Bards

In 1946, Elizabeth was inducted into the Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales, signifying her connection with Welsh culture.

July 1947: Engagement Announcement

On July 9, 1947, the engagement of Elizabeth to Philip was officially announced.

November 1947: Marriage to Philip Mountbatten

In November 1947, Elizabeth married Philip Mountbatten, a former prince of Greece and Denmark, marking a significant event in her life. Their marriage lasted 73 years.

November 1947: Marriage at Westminster Abbey

On November 20, 1947, Elizabeth and Philip were married at Westminster Abbey, receiving 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world. Elizabeth needed ration coupons to buy the material for her gown designed by Norman Hartnell.

1947: Overseas Tour in Southern Africa

In 1947, Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa, demonstrating her commitment to the Commonwealth.

1947: Renewal of commitment to public service

In her accession day message in February 2022, Elizabeth II renewed her commitment to a lifetime of public service, which she had originally made in 1947.

November 1948: Birth of Prince Charles

In November 1948, Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles.

July 1949: Residence at Clarence House

In July 1949, Elizabeth and Philip took up residence at Clarence House in London after leasing Windlesham Moor near Windsor Castle.

August 1950: Birth of Princess Anne

In August 1950, Elizabeth gave birth to her second child, Princess Anne.

1950: Publication of "The Little Princesses"

In 1950, Marion Crawford published "The Little Princesses", a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years, which was not well-received by the royal family.

The Little Princesses: The Story of the Queen's Childhood by Her Nanny, Marion Crawford

Check it on Amazon

October 1951: Visit to Canada and Washington, DC

In October 1951, Elizabeth visited Canada and Washington, D.C., accompanied by her private secretary Martin Charteris, who carried a draft accession declaration in anticipation of King George VI's potential death during the tour.

1951: Residence in Malta

Between 1949 and 1951, Philip was stationed in Malta, and he and Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several months at a time. Their two children remained in Britain.

February 1952: Elizabeth II Becomes Queen

In February 1952, Elizabeth II ascended to the throne, becoming Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms.

February 1952: Accession to the Throne

In February 1952, Elizabeth became Queen of seven independent Commonwealth countries upon the death of her father, King George VI.

April 1952: Declaration on the Royal House Name

On April 9, 1952, Elizabeth declared that the royal house would continue to be Windsor, despite suggestions to adopt her husband's name. This decision followed debate between Lord Mountbatten, Philip, Winston Churchill, and Queen Mary.

1952: Accession to the Throne

In 1952, Elizabeth II acceded to the throne, inheriting a role as head of multiple independent states within the evolving Commonwealth of Nations.

1952: Death of George VI and Elizabeth's Accession

In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip were in Kenya when news arrived of the death of Elizabeth's father, George VI. On February 6, 1952, Philip broke the news to Elizabeth, who chose to retain Elizabeth as her regnal name, becoming Elizabeth II. She was proclaimed queen and returned to the United Kingdom, moving into Buckingham Palace.

March 1953: Death of Queen Mary

Queen Mary died on March 24, 1953, but the coronation of Elizabeth II proceeded as planned on June 2, as Mary had requested.

1953: Commonwealth Tour

In 1953, Elizabeth II and Prince Philip embarked on a seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering over 40,000 miles. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.

1953: Coronation of Elizabeth II

In 1953, Elizabeth II was officially crowned, marking her formal ascension to the throne.

May 1954: Elizabeth approved her modified British arms

On 26 May 1954, Elizabeth approved her modified British arms.

November 1956: Suez Canal Invasion

In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten suggested that Elizabeth II opposed the invasion, though Eden denied it. The invasion was ultimately unsuccessful.

1957: State Visit to the United States and Opening of Canadian Parliament

In 1957, Elizabeth II made a state visit to the United States, addressing the United Nations General Assembly, and opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament as the first monarch of Canada to do so.

1957: Criticism from Lord Altrincham

In 1957, Lord Altrincham criticized Elizabeth II in his magazine, accusing her of being "out of touch", leading to public denouncement and physical assault on Altrincham.

1957: Lord Altrincham's Criticism

In 1957, Lord Altrincham criticized Elizabeth II's speeches as sounding like those of a "priggish schoolgirl".

February 1960: Birth of Prince Andrew

In February 1960, Elizabeth II gave birth to her third child, Andrew, marking the first birth to a reigning British monarch since 1857.

Others born on this day/year

1960: Princess Margaret's Marriage to Antony Armstrong-Jones

In 1960, Princess Margaret married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year.

1960: Adoption of Mountbatten-Windsor Surname

In 1960, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.

1961: Tours of Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Iran and Ghana

In 1961, Elizabeth II toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran. During a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety despite the risk of assassination attempts on President Kwame Nkrumah.

1963: Appointment of Alec Douglas-Home

In 1963, Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home as prime minister on the advice of Harold Macmillan, leading to further criticism.

March 1964: Birth of Prince Edward

In March 1964, Elizabeth II gave birth to her fourth child, Prince Edward.

Others born on this day/year

1964: Visit to Quebec and Montreal Riot

Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported that extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination. No assassination attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal.

1965: Conservative Party Leadership Election Mechanism

In 1965, the Conservative Party adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, relieving Elizabeth II of her involvement in the selection process.

1965: Rhodesia Declares Independence

In 1965, the Rhodesian prime minister, Ian Smith, unilaterally declared independence with Elizabeth II as "Queen of Rhodesia", in opposition to moves towards majority rule. Elizabeth formally dismissed him, and sanctions were applied against Rhodesia.

1966: Aberfan Disaster

In 1966, Elizabeth II was criticized for waiting eight days before visiting Aberfan, where a mining disaster killed 116 children and 28 adults.

1970: First Royal Walkabout

In 1970, Elizabeth II instituted a new practice: her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, which took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand.

October 1972: Visit to Yugoslavia

In October 1972, Elizabeth II toured Yugoslavia, becoming the first British monarch to visit a communist country. She was received by President Josip Broz Tito in Belgrade.

1973: Britain Joins the European Community

In 1973, the British government achieved entry to the European Community.

February 1974: General Election Called

In February 1974, British prime minister Edward Heath advised Elizabeth to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.

1975: Australian Constitutional Crisis

In 1975, during the Australian constitutional crisis, Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam. Elizabeth II declined to reverse Kerr's decision, saying she would not interfere in decisions reserved for the governor-general.

1977: Silver Jubilee

In 1977, Elizabeth II celebrated her Silver Jubilee with enthusiastic crowds and celebrations.

1977: Trudeau's Antics at Buckingham Palace

In 1977, Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian prime minister, pirouetted behind Elizabeth's back at Buckingham Palace.

1978: State Visit by Nicolae Ceaușescu

In 1978, Elizabeth II endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena.

1978: Divorce of Princess Margaret

In 1978, Princess Margaret divorced Antony Armstrong-Jones. She did not remarry.

1980: Patriation of the Canadian Constitution

In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found Elizabeth II to be well informed on the matter, particularly after the failure of Bill C-60.

1981: Attacks on Elizabeth II

In 1981, during the Trooping the Colour ceremony, six shots were fired at Elizabeth II. Later that year, during a visit to Dunedin, New Zealand, another shot was fired at Elizabeth, but missed.

September 1982: Prince Andrew Served in the Falklands War

From April to September 1982, Elizabeth's son Andrew served with British forces in the Falklands War. On 9 July 1982, Elizabeth awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder.

1983: Mental Health Act 1983

After being sentenced, Jaswant Singh Chail was placed under a hybrid order under section 45A of the Mental Health Act 1983, ordering that he remain at Broadmoor Hospital to be transferred into custody only after receiving psychiatric treatment.

1983: Invasion of Grenada

After hosting US president Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California ranch in 1983, Elizabeth was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.

1984: Miners' strike of 1984–85

During a royal tour of The Times' offices in 1984, Elizabeth II commented on the miners' strike of 1984–85, stating that it was "all about one man" (referring to Arthur Scargill).

1985: Reminiscing Victory in Europe Day

In 1985, Queen Elizabeth II recalled in a rare interview mingling incognito with the celebrating crowds in the streets of London on Victory in Europe Day at the end of the war.

July 1986: Elizabeth II Worried About Thatcher's Policies

In July 1986, The Sunday Times reported that Elizabeth II was worried that Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions, high unemployment, riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa.

September 1986: Media and Royal Family

In September 1986, newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer that the boundary between fact and fiction regarding the royal family had been blurred due to intense media interest and sensational stories.

1986: State Visit to China

In 1986, Elizabeth II became the first British monarch to visit the People's Republic of China, touring sites such as the Forbidden City and the Great Wall.

1987: Criticism and Political Divides

In 1987, Elizabeth II faced satire and ridicule after younger royals participated in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout. Additionally, in Canada, she publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, drawing criticism. The same year, after a military coup in Fiji, she supported the Governor-General's attempts to negotiate a settlement before Fiji was declared a republic.

May 1991: Address to US Congress

In May 1991, following the Gulf War victory, Elizabeth II became the first British monarch to address a joint meeting of the United States Congress.

November 1992: Annus Horribilis Speech and Windsor Castle Fire

In November 1992, Elizabeth II referred to 1992 as her 'annus horribilis' during a speech marking her Ruby Jubilee. This followed a series of negative events, including the separation of Prince Andrew, the divorce of Princess Anne, egg-throwing demonstrators in Dresden, and a large fire at Windsor Castle.

1992: Annus Horribilis

1992 was Elizabeth II's "annus horribilis", a year marked by several scandals and breakdowns in her children's marriages.

1993: Royal Finances Reform

From 1993 onwards, plans were announced to reform the royal finances, including Elizabeth II paying income tax and a reduction in the civil list. These reforms were drawn up in the previous year.

January 1994: Wrist Injury

In January 1994, Elizabeth II broke her left wrist when a horse she was riding at Sandringham tripped and fell.

October 1994: Visit to Russia

In October 1994, Elizabeth II became the first reigning British monarch to set foot on Russian soil.

1994: State Visit to Russia

In 1994, Queen Elizabeth II made a state visit to Russia, further strengthening international relations.

October 1995: Hoax Call

In October 1995, Elizabeth II was tricked into a hoax call by Montreal radio host Pierre Brassard, impersonating Canadian prime minister Jean Chrétien, where she expressed support for Canadian unity.

December 1995: Divorce Suggestion to Charles and Diana

At the end of December 1995, Elizabeth II, in consultation with her husband and John Major, as well as the Archbishop of Canterbury and her private secretary, wrote to Charles and Diana suggesting that a divorce would be advisable.

August 1997: Diana's Death and Family Reaction

In August 1997, after Diana's death in Paris, Elizabeth II was at Balmoral with her family. She shielded her grandsons from the press for five days, leading to public dismay over the royal family's silence and seclusion.

October 1997: State Visit to India and Jallianwala Bagh

In October 1997, Elizabeth II made a state visit to India, including a visit to the site of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Despite protests, she and Philip laid a wreath and stood for a moment of silence.

1997: Death of Diana, Princess of Wales

In 1997, Diana, Princess of Wales, the former daughter-in-law of Queen Elizabeth II, died, triggering significant media attention and public mourning.

November 1999: Australian monarchy referendum

In November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state.

1999: Opening of Welsh and Scottish Legislatures

In 1999, as part of devolution in the UK, Elizabeth II formally opened the National Assembly for Wales in Cardiff in May and the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh in July.

2000: Christmas Message of 2000

In her annual Christmas Message to the Commonwealth in 2000, Elizabeth II included a personal note about her faith.

2002: Golden Jubilee

In 2002, Elizabeth II marked her Golden Jubilee. She undertook an extensive tour of her realms, and there were street parties and commemorative events. One million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London.

2002: Meeting with Canadian Governor-General Adrienne Clarkson

In 2002, Elizabeth II told Canadian governor-general Adrienne Clarkson in a meeting that she would never abdicate, saying, "It is not our tradition. Although, I suppose if I became completely gaga, one would have to do something."

2003: Lawsuit Against Daily Mirror

In 2003, Elizabeth II sued the Daily Mirror for breach of confidence and obtained an injunction preventing them from publishing information gathered by a reporter posing as a footman at Buckingham Palace.

October 2006: Missed Emirates Stadium Opening

In October 2006, Elizabeth II missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium due to a strained back muscle.

2006: Strong support for the monarchy

In 2006, polls in Britain revealed strong support for the monarchy.

May 2007: Reported Frustration with Tony Blair

In May 2007, The Daily Telegraph reported that Elizabeth II was "exasperated and frustrated" by Tony Blair's policies, particularly regarding the British Armed Forces in Iraq and Afghanistan.

November 2007: Diamond Wedding Anniversary

In November 2007, Elizabeth II became the first British monarch to celebrate a diamond wedding anniversary.

December 2007: Longest-lived British monarch

In December 2007, Elizabeth II surpassed Queen Victoria to become the longest-lived British monarch.

2007: Strong support for the monarchy

In 2007, polls in Britain revealed strong support for the monarchy.

March 2008: Maundy Service in Armagh

On March 20, 2008, Elizabeth II attended the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales at St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh.

2008: Tuvalu referendum

In 2008, a referendum in Tuvalu saw voters reject proposals to become a republic.

2009: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines referendum

In 2009, a referendum in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines saw voters reject proposals to become republics.

2010: Address to UN General Assembly

In 2010, Elizabeth II addressed the UN General Assembly for a second time, as Queen of all Commonwealth realms and Head of the Commonwealth.

2010: Gillard's assessment of affection for Elizabeth

In 2010, Prime Minister Julia Gillard noted that there was a "deep affection" for Elizabeth II in Australia and that another referendum on the monarchy should wait until after her reign.

May 2011: State Visit to the Republic of Ireland

In May 2011, Elizabeth II made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch.

October 2011: Visit to Australia

In October 2011, Elizabeth II's 11-day visit to Australia marked her 16th visit to the country since 1954.

2011: State Visit to the Republic of Ireland

In 2011, Queen Elizabeth II made a historic state visit to the Republic of Ireland, symbolizing reconciliation and strengthened relations.

2012: Opened London Olympics

In 2012, Elizabeth II opened the Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, becoming the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two countries. She portrayed herself in a short film with Daniel Craig as James Bond for the opening ceremony.

2012: Diamond Jubilee approval ratings

In 2012, Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee year, her approval ratings hit 90 percent.

2012: Diamond Jubilee

In 2012, the Diamond Jubilee marked 60 years since Elizabeth II's accession, with celebrations held throughout her realms and beyond. Jubilee beacons were lit around the world on June 4.

March 2013: Hospital Stay and Charter of the Commonwealth

In March 2013, Elizabeth II stayed overnight at King Edward VII's Hospital as a precaution after developing symptoms of gastroenteritis. She signed the new Charter of the Commonwealth a week later.

April 2013: Honorary BAFTA Award

On April 4, 2013, Elizabeth II received an honorary BAFTA award for her patronage of the film industry and was called "the most memorable Bond girl yet".

2014: Scottish independence referendum

Following the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, Prime Minister David Cameron stated that Elizabeth II was pleased with the outcome. She had told one woman outside Balmoral Kirk that she hoped people would think "very carefully" about the outcome.

January 2015: Oldest living monarch

In January 2015, Elizabeth II became the oldest living monarch following the death of King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia.

September 2015: Longest-reigning British monarch

In September 2015, Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning British monarch, the longest-reigning queen regnant, and the longest-reigning female head of state in the world.

October 2016: Longest-reigning current monarch and head of state

In October 2016, following the death of King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning current monarch and the longest-serving current head of state.

February 2017: Sapphire Jubilee

In February 2017, Elizabeth II became the first British monarch to commemorate a sapphire jubilee, marking 65 years on the throne.

August 2017: Philip's retirement

In August 2017, Prince Philip retired from his official duties as the Queen's consort.

November 2017: Oldest current head of state

In November 2017, Elizabeth II became the oldest current head of state upon the resignation of Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe.

April 2018: Succession as Head of the Commonwealth

On April 20, 2018, Commonwealth heads of government announced that Charles would succeed Elizabeth II as Head of the Commonwealth, which she stated as her "sincere wish".

May 2018: Cataract Surgery

In May 2018, Elizabeth II underwent cataract surgery.

March 2019: Gave up Driving

In March 2019, Elizabeth II gave up driving on public roads, largely due to a car accident involving her husband two months earlier.

March 2020: Move to Windsor Castle due to COVID-19

In March 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the United Kingdom, Elizabeth II moved to Windsor Castle and sequestered there as a precaution, cancelling public engagements.

April 2021: Death of Prince Philip

On April 9, 2021, Prince Philip died after 73 years of marriage, making Elizabeth the first British monarch to reign as a widow or widower since Queen Victoria. She remarked that his death had "left a huge void".

October 2021: Hospital stay

In October 2021, Elizabeth cancelled a planned trip to Northern Ireland and stayed overnight at King Edward VII's Hospital for "preliminary investigations".

2021: Most admired woman in the world

As of 2021 Elizabeth II remained the third most admired woman in the world according to the annual Gallup poll, with 52 appearances on the list.

2021: COVID-19 Vaccinations

In 2021, Elizabeth received her first and second COVID-19 vaccinations in January and April respectively.

2021: Turnbull's assessment of Elizabethans vs monarchists

In 2021, Malcolm Turnbull believed that Australians would not vote to become a republic in Elizabeth's lifetime, saying, "She's been an extraordinary head of state" and "there are more Elizabethans than there are monarchists."

2021: Death of Prince Philip

In 2021, Prince Philip, the husband of Queen Elizabeth II, passed away, marking the end of their 73-year marriage.

February 2022: Platinum Jubilee celebrations began

On February 6, 2022, Elizabeth's Platinum Jubilee celebrations began, marking 70 years since her accession.

June 2022: Meeting with Archbishop of Canterbury

In June 2022, Elizabeth II met with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, who "came away thinking there is someone who has no fear of death, has hope in the future, knows the rock on which she stands and that gives her strength."

September 2022: Death of Elizabeth II

Elizabeth II died in September 2022, ending her reign as Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms.

February 2023: Jaswant Singh Chail pleaded guilty.

In February 2023, Jaswant Singh Chail pleaded guilty to attempting to injure or alarm the sovereign, for breaking into Windsor Castle gardens using a rope ladder and carrying a crossbow with the aim of assassinating Elizabeth in revenge for the Amritsar massacre.