Robert Gabriel Mugabe was a prominent Zimbabwean revolutionary and politician. He held the positions of Prime Minister from 1980 to 1987 and President from 1987 to 2017. Mugabe played a key role in Zimbabwe's liberation struggle, serving as the leader of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and later its successor, the ZANU – Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF). His ideological stance evolved from Marxist–Leninist and socialist during his early years to African nationalist throughout his political career.
February 1924: Robert Mugabe's Birth
Robert Gabriel Mugabe was born in February 1924 in Kutama, Southern Rhodesia.
1930: Expulsion from Mission Village
Mugabe's family was expelled from the Kutama Mission village in 1930 following a dispute between his father and a Jesuit priest.
1934: Family Tragedies and Father's Departure
Tragedy struck Mugabe's family in 1934 when two of his older brothers died. Adding to the hardship, his father abandoned the family.
1941: Teacher Training at Kutama College
Mugabe began his teacher training at Kutama College in 1941, supported by a scholarship and the generosity of Father O'Hea.
1944: Father's Return and Death
Mugabe's father returned to Kutama in 1944 with three children from another relationship but died shortly after, leaving Robert responsible for his siblings and half-siblings.
1945: Completion of Teacher Training
Mugabe successfully completed his teacher training and left Kutama in 1945.
1948: Southern Rhodesia General Strike
A general strike occurred in Southern Rhodesia in 1948, but there's no evidence of Mugabe's involvement.
1949: Scholarship to the University of Fort Hare
Mugabe received a scholarship in 1949 to study at the University of Fort Hare in South Africa.
1952: Return to Southern Rhodesia and Teaching Career
In 1952, Mugabe returned to Southern Rhodesia after his education abroad, harboring strong anti-colonial sentiments. He began his career as a teacher at Driefontein Roman Catholic Mission School.
1952: Graduation from the University of Fort Hare
Mugabe graduated from the University of Fort Hare with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history and English literature in 1952.
1953: Relocation to Highfield Government School
Mugabe relocated to the Highfield Government School in Salisbury's Harari township in 1953, continuing his teaching career.
1954: Move to Mambo Township Government School and Pursuit of Higher Education
In 1954, Mugabe moved to Mambo Township Government School in Gwelo. He pursued a Bachelor of Education degree from the University of South Africa through correspondence and delved into Marxist literature.
1955: Move to Northern Rhodesia and Continued Education
Mugabe moved to Northern Rhodesia in 1955, taking up a teaching position at Chalimbana Teacher Training College in Lusaka. He began pursuing a Bachelor of Administration degree from the University of London International Programmes.
September 1957: Founding of Southern Rhodesia African National Congress (SRANC)
While Mugabe was abroad, the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress (SRANC) was founded in September 1957, marking a significant step in the anti-colonial movement in Southern Rhodesia.
1958: Teaching in Ghana and Exposure to Pan-Africanism
In 1958, Mugabe moved to Ghana to teach at St Mary's Teacher Training College in Takoradi. He was drawn to Ghana's status as an independent African state and the Pan-Africanist ideals of Kwame Nkrumah.
February 1959: Banning of SRANC
The colonial government banned the SRANC in February 1959, highlighting the increasing tensions and suppression of nationalist movements.
January 1960: Formation of National Democratic Party (NDP)
The National Democratic Party (NDP) was founded in January 1960, succeeding the banned SRANC and advocating for a more radical approach to achieving independence.
May 1960: Return to Southern Rhodesia and Involvement with NDP
Mugabe returned to Southern Rhodesia in May 1960, initially planning a short visit. However, encouraged by his friend Leopold Takawira, he decided to stay and became involved with the newly formed NDP.
July 1960: Involvement in Protest and Decision to Focus on Activism
Following the arrest of NDP officials, Mugabe participated in a large protest in July 1960. He gave a speech that solidified his position as a respected figure within the movement and prompted his decision to dedicate himself full-time to activism.
October 1960: NDP Congress and Appointment as Publicity Secretary
Mugabe chaired the first NDP congress in October 1960 and was elected as the party's publicity secretary. He played a key role in shaping the party's messaging and outreach.
1960: Teaching at Apowa Secondary School and Meeting Sally Hayfron
After obtaining local certification at Achimota College in 1960, Mugabe taught at Apowa Secondary School in Takoradi, Ghana. It was during this time that he met his future wife, Sally Hayfron.
February 1961: Marriage to Sally Hayfron
Mugabe married Sally Hayfron in February 1961 in a Roman Catholic ceremony in Salisbury. Hayfron converted to Catholicism to facilitate the marriage.
December 1961: Banning of NDP and Formation of Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU)
The NDP was banned by the government in December 1961, leading to the formation of the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU). Mugabe was appointed as ZAPU's publicity secretary and general secretary.
September 1962: Banning of ZAPU and Arrest of Mugabe and Hayfron
ZAPU was banned by the government in September 1962, and Mugabe, along with other party officials, was arrested. Mugabe's wife, Sally Hayfron, was also sentenced to imprisonment for a politically charged speech.
December 1962: Rhodesian Front Victory and Advocacy for Armed Resistance
The right-wing Rhodesian Front won the December 1962 general election, further solidifying white minority rule. Mugabe began advocating for armed resistance against the government, believing that political avenues were ineffective.
1962: Mugabe's Political Ideology: A Blend of Marxism and African Nationalism
In 1962, descriptions of Robert Mugabe's political ideology emerged, characterizing him as more of a pragmatic African nationalist than a strict Marxist. While embracing Marxist rhetoric, he prioritized the role of rural peasantry in social change, contrasting traditional Marxist views. Observers noted that his socialist leanings were tempered by a pragmatic approach to governance.
September 1963: Birth of Robert Mugabe's Son, Michael Nhamodzenyika Mugabe
Robert Mugabe and his first wife, Sally Hayfron, welcomed their only son, Michael Nhamodzenyika Mugabe, on September 27, 1963.
December 1963: Arrest of Robert Mugabe
Upon returning to Southern Rhodesia in December 1963, Robert Mugabe was arrested.
March 1964: Trial and Imprisonment of Robert Mugabe
In March 1964, after a trial lasting from January to March 1964 where he refused to retract previous statements, Robert Mugabe was sentenced to 21 months in prison.
August 1964: Banning of ZANU and ZAPU
In August 1964, the Rhodesian Front government, led by Ian Smith, banned ZANU and ZAPU and arrested remaining leaders of the African nationalist movement.
1964: Imprisonment for Sedition
Robert Mugabe was imprisoned for sedition in 1964.
November 1965: Unilateral Declaration of Independence by Rhodesia
In November 1965, Rhodesia's government declared independence from the United Kingdom, renaming Southern Rhodesia to Rhodesia, a move unrecognized by the UK, leading to economic sanctions.
April 1966: Escalation of Guerrilla Activity and Mugabe's Transfer
In April 1966, a ZANU guerrilla group carried out attacks, prompting the government to transfer Robert Mugabe and other ZANU executive members back to Salisbury Prison.
December 1966: Tragedy Strikes: Death of Mugabe's Son
Tragedy struck the Mugabe family on December 26, 1966, when their son, Michael Nhamodzenyika Mugabe, passed away from cerebral malaria in Ghana. At the time, Sally was working in Ghana while Mugabe was imprisoned.
October 1968: Sithole's Assassination Attempt and Trial
In October 1968, Sithole attempted to orchestrate the assassination of Ian Smith from prison. His plan was discovered, leading to a trial in January 1969.
January 1969: Sithole's Renunciation of Violence and Removal from ZANU Leadership
During his trial in January 1969, Sithole, facing a potential death sentence, renounced violence and his prior ideological stances, leading to his removal as ZANU President and replacement by Mugabe.
1970: Father O'Hea's Passing
Father Jerome O'Hea, a significant mentor in Mugabe's life, passed away in 1970.
1972: Launch of Guerrilla War Against Rhodesian Government
In 1972, African nationalists initiated a guerrilla war known as the "Second Chimurenga" against the Rhodesian government, with paramilitary groups operating from Tanzania and Zambia.
November 1974: Suspension of Sithole from ZANU
In November 1974, the ZANU executive voted to suspend Sithole's membership in the organization.
November 1974: Release of Mugabe and Internal ZANU Violence
Robert Mugabe was released from prison in November 1974 after almost 11 years. During this time, ZANU experienced internal violence, mainly between different Shona groups.
1974: Release from Prison
Robert Mugabe was released from prison in 1974.
March 1975: Mugabe's Move to Mozambique and House Arrest
In March 1975, Mugabe escaped to Mozambique with help from Ribeiro and a nun, aiming to lead ZANU's guerrilla operations. However, Mozambique's President, Samora Machel, placed Mugabe under partial house arrest in Quelimane, skeptical of his leadership.
1975: Leader of ZANU
Robert Mugabe assumed leadership of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) in 1975.
January 1976: ZANLA Launches Major Infiltration and Rhodesian Response
ZANLA launched a major infiltration from Mozambique in January 1976, prompting Rhodesia to expand its army significantly.
October 1976: Formation of the Patriotic Front
Despite Mugabe's opposition to a negotiated settlement, ZANU and ZAPU formed a joint platform called the Patriotic Front in October 1976.
1976: Mugabe Secures Support Within ZANLA
Throughout 1976, Mugabe garnered support among ZANLA officers in various Mozambican camps, establishing himself as a prominent guerrilla leader against the Smith regime.
August 1977: Mugabe Officially Declared ZANU President
In August 1977, Mugabe was formally declared ZANU President at a central committee meeting in Chimoio.
September 1978: Mugabe's Meeting with Nkomo and Disagreement over Negotiations
Mugabe met with Nkomo in Lusaka in September 1978, expressing anger over Nkomo's secret attempts to negotiate with Smith.
September 1979: London Peace Talks and the Patriotic Front
In September 1979, Robert Mugabe, initially reluctant, attended the Lancaster House peace talks in London under pressure from Samora Machel. Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo represented the "Patriotic Front" but maintained separate headquarters, highlighting their differing approaches. Mugabe's distrust of the British and his revolutionary stance were evident throughout the negotiations.
1979: Death of Josiah Tongogara and Suspicions Surrounding Mugabe
Josiah Tongogara died in a car accident in 1979, leading to unsubstantiated rumors about Mugabe's potential involvement.
1979: End of White Minority Rule in Rhodesia
In 1979, under pressure from South African Prime Minister B.J. Vorster, Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith accepted the unsustainability of white minority rule. This led to the 1979 election of Abel Muzorewa, a moderate black bishop, as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The election was boycotted by ZANU and ZAPU and lacked international recognition.
1979: ZANLA's Growing Strength and Escalating Violence
By 1979, ZANLA's attacks had forced white landowners to abandon their farms, leading many displaced black workers to join the guerrilla movement. ZANLA was able to attack Rhodesian cities, and the war's death toll reached at least 30,000.
1979: Contrasting Views on Mugabe's Personality and Leadership
Following negotiations in 1979, perceptions of Mugabe's personality diverged. Some found him sharp and aggressive, while others described him as charming, articulate, and even humorous in private. These contrasting views highlight the complexities of his character and the challenges in reconciling his public and private personas.
January 1980: Mugabe's Return and Election Campaign
Mugabe returned to Salisbury in January 1980, greeted by a supportive crowd. He toned down his Marxist rhetoric during the election campaign, aiming to reassure the white minority. ZANU-PF's win was anticipated due to the country's ethnic demographics, with Mugabe's Shona ethnicity constituting the majority.
March 1980: Mugabe's "Conciliatory Phase"
From March 1980 to February 1982, Robert Mugabe exhibited what some historians call a "conciliatory phase" in his leadership.
April 1980: Zimbabwe's Independence and Mugabe as Prime Minister
Zimbabwe gained independence on April 18, 1980, with Mugabe sworn in as its first Prime Minister. His speech at Rufaro Stadium emphasized racial reconciliation and announced Rhodesia's renaming to Zimbabwe. Despite initial skepticism, Mugabe appreciated Lord Soames' role in ensuring a smooth transition of power.
1980: Significance of the 1980 Elections
The 1980 elections in Zimbabwe were considered a landmark event, marking the country's transition to independence.
1980: Consolidation of Mugabe's Cult of Personality
Following his election victory, a cult of personality around Robert Mugabe, which began during the Bush War, was consolidated within the ZANU movement in 1980.
1980: Economic Policies and Social Development in the 1980s
Despite Mugabe's socialist pronouncements, his government's economic policies from 1980 onwards were fiscally conservative, prioritizing foreign investment. The economy grew, but couldn't keep up with population growth. The government prioritized education and healthcare, resulting in significant improvements in literacy rates and child immunization by 2000.
1980: Mugabe's Public Persona: A Mix of Discipline and Contradictions
Upon assuming power in 1980, Robert Mugabe cultivated a distinctive public image. Known for his meticulous attire, often donning three-piece suits, he encouraged his cabinet members to follow suit, reflecting a conservative and Anglophile style. He was also recognized for his trademark wide-rimmed glasses and a neatly trimmed mustache. Despite his political ambitions, Mugabe remained a private figure, avoiding the glorification of his past and refraining from smoking and drinking.
1980: Mugabe's Early Leadership Marked by Magnanimity and Courage
Despite his past struggles and reasons for resentment, Mugabe exhibited magnanimity and moral courage after his election victory in 1980. His willingness to reconcile with former adversaries during this period showcased his leadership qualities and capacity for forgiveness.
1980: Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
Robert Mugabe became the Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980.
1980: Living Standards in Zimbabwe
Living standards in Zimbabwe in 1980 served as a benchmark against which the country's economic decline was measured.
1980: Racial Tensions and Exodus of White Zimbabweans
In 1980, racial tensions persisted in Zimbabwe, with many white citizens expressing concerns about racial discrimination and economic prospects under Mugabe's leadership. A significant exodus of white Zimbabweans ensued, with approximately a tenth of the white population emigrating, primarily to South Africa. Mugabe's government banned sporting interactions with South Africa in protest against apartheid.
1980: Establishment of M&S Syndicate and Media Control
In 1980, ZANU-PF established the M&S Syndicate, marking the beginning of its business empire. They also used Nigerian funds to establish the Mass Media Trust, gaining control over most of Zimbabwe's newspapers.
1980: Mugabe Delivers Victory Speech
Following his victory in the 1980 elections, Robert Mugabe delivered a significant speech.
January 1981: Nkomo Demoted, Tensions with ZAPU Escalate
In January 1981, Mugabe removed Joshua Nkomo from his cabinet position, a move that Nkomo warned would incite anger among ZAPU supporters. This event marked a turning point in the relationship between ZANU-PF and ZAPU, escalating tensions that would later lead to violent confrontations.
December 1981: Bombing of ZANU-PF Headquarters and Heightened Racial Tensions
In December 1981, a bomb attack on ZANU-PF headquarters resulted in seven fatalities and numerous injuries. Mugabe attributed the bombing to white militants supported by South Africa, further escalating racial tensions. He accused some segments of the white community of undermining racial reconciliation and collaborating with South Africa to destabilize Zimbabwe.
December 1981: Arrest and Torture of Wally Stuttaford
Wally Stuttaford, an elderly white member of parliament, was arrested and subjected to torture in December 1981 under suspicion of being a South African agent. This incident further fueled anger and mistrust among the white Zimbabwean population.
1981: Formation of Zidoo Holdings
ZANU-PF further expanded its business interests in 1981 by founding Zidoo Holdings.
February 1982: End of "Conciliatory Phase"
By February 1982, the period deemed Mugabe's "conciliatory phase" had ended.
July 1982: Sabotage of Aircraft at Thornhill
In July 1982, white militants with alleged ties to South Africa destroyed thirteen aircraft at Thornhill. This event heightened tensions and led to the arrest and torture of several white military officers, despite their acquittal by judges, sparking international condemnation.
1982: Post-Independence Reforms and International Aid
In 1982, Zimbabwe saw significant changes including the renaming of Salisbury to Harare and the removal of colonial statues. Mugabe, with the help of North Korean architects, constructed Heroes' Acre to commemorate the fight against minority rule. The country received substantial aid from Western nations hoping for Zimbabwe's stability and prosperity.
1982: Formation of the Fifth Brigade and Growing Lawlessness in Matabeleland
The Fifth Brigade, an elite military force trained by North Korea, was established by Mugabe in 1982. This period also saw escalating lawlessness in Matabeleland, with former ZIPRA combatants engaging in banditry and violence, further destabilizing the region.
1982: Beginning of Gukurahundi
The Gukurahundi, a period of intense political violence and repression in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe, began in 1982.
January 1983: Deployment of the Fifth Brigade in Matabeleland
In January 1983, the Fifth Brigade, a North Korean-trained military unit loyal to Mugabe, was deployed to Matabeleland to suppress dissident activity. The brigade's brutal tactics, including widespread killings, torture, and arson, led to what became known as the "Gukurahundi."
September 1983: Mugabe's White House Visit Amidst Gukurahundi Silence
In September 1983, President Ronald Reagan welcomed Mugabe to the White House, despite the ongoing Gukurahundi killings in Zimbabwe. This silence from the US government, coupled with the UK's cautious approach to avoid jeopardizing white Zimbabweans' safety, underscored the international community's muted response to the atrocities.
October 1983: Mugabe Attends Commonwealth Meeting Amidst Gukurahundi Silence
Mugabe attended the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in New Delhi in October 1983, where the Gukurahundi massacres went unmentioned by participating states. This silence further highlighted the lack of international pressure on Mugabe's government regarding the atrocities.
1984: Mugabe Expresses Support for One-Party State
In 1984, Robert Mugabe articulated his vision of Zimbabwe transitioning into a one-party state, arguing that it aligned with African traditions and promoted unity. This statement underscored his increasingly authoritarian tendencies and his belief in a centralized political system.
1984: Honorary Degree Awarded by the University of Edinburgh
Robert Mugabe was awarded an honorary degree from the University of Edinburgh in 1984.
1984: Gukurahundi Spreads, Exacerbating Drought Conditions
The Gukurahundi intensified in 1984, spreading to Matabeleland South, a region already grappling with severe drought. The Fifth Brigade's actions, including the closure of stores and imposition of curfews, exacerbated the humanitarian crisis, leading to accusations of systematic starvation.
1984: Leadership Code and Growing Discontent
In 1984, Mugabe introduced a "leadership code" to curb the excesses of the new elite, limiting their land ownership and salaries. However, exceptions were made, causing resentment among the wider population struggling with poverty.
1985: Amnesty International Report Dismissed by Mugabe
In 1985, Mugabe rejected an Amnesty International report that documented atrocities committed during the Gukurahundi, labeling it a "heap of lies." Despite mounting evidence of human rights abuses, Mugabe's government continued to deny wrongdoing, further isolating Zimbabwe from the international community.
1985: Conservative Alliance's Success in White-Allocated Seats
In the 1985 elections, Ian Smith's Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe secured victory in 15 out of the 20 parliamentary seats reserved for white Zimbabweans. Mugabe expressed outrage at this outcome, accusing white Zimbabweans of not showing remorse for their past actions and continuing to support politicians who had oppressed the black population.
1985: Violence and Intimidation Mark the 1985 Elections
The lead-up to the 1985 elections in Zimbabwe saw a continuation of violence and intimidation against ZAPU supporters by ZANU-PF Youth League brigades. Despite this, ZAPU managed to win all 15 parliamentary seats in Matabeleland. However, Mugabe's appointment of Enos Nkala as the new police minister led to further crackdowns on ZAPU, including detentions, bans, and the closure of offices, ultimately culminating in the Unity Accord of 1987.
1986: Honorary Law Degree Awarded by UMass Amherst
In 1986, Robert Mugabe received an honorary law degree from the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
1986: Mugabe Becomes Chair of the Non-Aligned Movement
Robert Mugabe assumed the role of chair of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in 1986, a position he held until 1989. This appointment highlighted his leadership within the Front Line States and his prominent role in the fight against apartheid in South Africa.
1986: Chairmanship of the Non-Aligned Movement
Robert Mugabe started chairing the Non-Aligned Movement in 1986.
December 1987: The Unity Accord and the Establishment of a De Facto One-Party State
Under pressure and facing continued violence and intimidation, ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo signed the Unity Accord with Mugabe's ZANU-PF in December 1987. This led to ZAPU's dissolution and the merging of its leadership into ZANU-PF, effectively establishing Zimbabwe as a de facto one-party state with ZANU-PF holding 99 out of 100 parliamentary seats.
1987: End of Gukurahundi
The Gukurahundi in Zimbabwe ended in 1987.
1987: Extramarital Affair Begins
In 1987, while still married to Sally Hayfron, Robert Mugabe began an extramarital affair with his secretary, Grace Marufu.
1987: President of Zimbabwe
Robert Mugabe transitioned from Prime Minister to President of Zimbabwe in 1987.
1987: Beginning of Mugabe's Relationship with Grace Marufu
Mugabe's affair with his secretary, Grace Marufu, began in 1987, a relationship that would later become public and culminate in their marriage in 1996.
1987: Mugabe Becomes Executive President and Consolidates Power
In a move that solidified his grip on power, Mugabe was declared executive president of Zimbabwe in late 1987. This newly created position granted him sweeping powers, including the ability to dissolve parliament, declare martial law, and stand for an unlimited number of terms, effectively concentrating power in his hands.
1988: Birth of Bona Mugabe
Grace Marufu gave birth to Bona Mugabe, Robert Mugabe's daughter, in 1988.
April 1989: Tekere Launches Zimbabwe Unity Movement
In April 1989, Edgar Tekere, a long-standing ally of Mugabe, launched the Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM). Tekere accused Mugabe of betraying the revolution and establishing a dictatorship, marking a significant point of opposition to Mugabe's rule.
December 1989: Mugabe's Admiration for Nicolae Ceaușescu Raises Concerns
Mugabe's open admiration for Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu, expressed shortly before Ceaușescu's overthrow in December 1989, raised concerns about his leadership style and political aspirations.
1989: Mugabe's Tenure as Chair of NAM Ends
Mugabe's term as chair of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) concluded in 1989.
1989: End of Chairmanship of the Non-Aligned Movement
Robert Mugabe's tenure as chair of the Non-Aligned Movement concluded in 1989.
1990: Mugabe Postpones One-Party State Plans and Embraces Economic Reforms
In 1990, amidst the collapse of one-party states globally, Mugabe announced the postponement of his plans to transition Zimbabwe into a one-party state. This period also saw him embracing free-market economics and accepting a structural adjustment program from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), marking a shift in his economic policies.
1990: Lancaster House Agreement Expires
In 1990, the Lancaster House Agreement, which had governed land reform in Zimbabwe since independence, expired. The agreement had stipulated a "willing seller-willing buyer" approach, limiting Mugabe's government's ability to redistribute land.
1990: Mugabe Wins 1990 Election Amidst Opposition and Intimidation
The 1990 elections in Zimbabwe saw Mugabe facing opposition from the newly formed Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM). Despite facing criticism for his authoritarian tendencies, Mugabe was re-elected with nearly 80% of the vote. However, the election was marred by intimidation tactics employed against ZUM supporters, raising concerns about the fairness of the process.
1990: Land Redistribution Efforts and Growing Tensions
In 1990, Zimbabwe's parliament passed an amendment empowering the government to expropriate land at a fixed price, with no right of appeal for landowners. This move, aimed at addressing land inequality, faced criticism from white farmers and international organizations, who argued it would harm the economy and violate property rights.
1990: Birth of Robert Mugabe Jr.
In 1990, Grace Marufu gave birth to Robert Mugabe Jr., Robert Mugabe's son.
1990: Economic Challenges and Rising Unemployment
By 1990, despite economic growth in the 1980s, Zimbabwe faced challenges like a rising unemployment rate, reaching 26%. The budget deficit averaged 10% of the GDP, highlighting economic difficulties.
1991: ZANU-PF Removes Marxist-Leninist References and Implements Economic Reforms
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, ZANU-PF, under Mugabe's leadership, removed references to "Marxism-Leninism" and "scientific socialism" in 1991, signaling a move away from its socialist rhetoric. This period also saw the implementation of some, but not all, recommendations of the IMF's structural adjustment program, including privatization of state assets and reduction of import tariffs, leading to growing opposition from trade unions due to wage cuts.
January 1992: Death of Mugabe's Wife, Sally Hayfron
Mugabe's wife, Sally Hayfron, passed away in January 1992.
1992: ZANU-PF's Growing Business Empire
By 1992, ZANU-PF had amassed significant wealth, with assets and businesses estimated at Z$500 million (US$75 million). This accumulation of wealth occurred alongside the party's increasing control over media outlets, which were used for propaganda.
1992: Death of Sally Hayfron
Sally Hayfron, Robert Mugabe's first wife, passed away in 1992 from a chronic kidney ailment.
April 1994: Land Expropriation Scandal and Halted Aid
In April 1994, a newspaper investigation revealed that some expropriated land, intended for landless blacks, was being leased to government ministers and officials, sparking a scandal. This revelation led to the UK government halting its financial aid for land redistribution, highlighting concerns about corruption and the program's effectiveness.
1994: Honorary Knighthood Granted
Robert Mugabe received an honorary knighthood from the British state in 1994.
April 1995: Mugabe's Affair and Relationship with Grace Marufu Revealed
In April 1995, Horizon magazine exposed Mugabe's secret affair with his secretary, Grace Marufu, and the existence of their two children.
August 1995: Mugabe Refuses to Open Book Fair Over LGBTQ+ Presence
In August 1995, Mugabe refused to open the Zimbabwe International Book Fair in Harare because of a stall hosted by the group Gays and Lesbians of Zimbabwe. This action highlighted Mugabe's stance against homosexuality.
August 1996: Marriage to Grace Marufu
In August 1996, Robert Mugabe and Grace Marufu were married in a large Catholic ceremony, following the death of Mugabe's first wife.
August 1996: Mugabe Marries Grace Marufu
Following the public revelation of his affair, Mugabe married Grace Marufu in a lavish ceremony in August 1996. The wedding, attended by 12,000 guests, sparked controversy within the Catholic community due to the adulterous nature of their relationship.
1996: Mugabe Appointed Chair of SADC Defense Arm
In 1996, Mugabe was appointed chair of the defense arm of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).
August 1997: Mugabe Implements Controversial Pension Package
In August 1997, Mugabe announced a new pension package for veterans of the revolutionary war. This decision was met with criticism due to its potential economic impact.
December 1997: General Strike Erupts in Protest of New Taxes
In December 1997, Zimbabwe experienced a general strike in response to the government's proposed taxes intended to fund the new pension scheme. The protests ultimately led to the abandonment of the tax plan.
1997: Birth of Chatunga Bellarmine Mugabe
Grace Mugabe gave birth to Chatunga Bellarmine Mugabe, her third child with Robert Mugabe, in 1997.
1997: Life Expectancy in Zimbabwe
In 1997, the average life expectancy in Zimbabwe was 63 for women and 54 for men, highlighting a stark contrast to the significantly reduced figures in later years.
1997: Chairmanship of the Organisation of African Unity
Robert Mugabe assumed the role of chair for the Organisation of African Unity in 1997.
1997: Formation of the National Constitutional Assembly
The National Constitutional Assembly (NCA), a pro-reform advocacy group, was founded in 1997.
1997: Tony Blair Becomes Prime Minister of the UK
Tony Blair's election as UK Prime Minister in 1997 marked a shift in UK policy towards Zimbabwe, particularly regarding land reform.
January 1998: Food Riots Erupt in Harare
January 1998 saw riots erupt in Harare over food shortages. The government deployed the army to quell the unrest, resulting in fatalities and injuries.
August 1998: Mugabe Deploys Troops to the Democratic Republic of Congo
In August 1998, Mugabe ordered Zimbabwean troops to intervene in the Second Congo War, siding with President Laurent Kabila. This decision had significant financial and political implications for Zimbabwe.
1998: End of Chairmanship of the Organisation of African Unity
Robert Mugabe's time chairing the Organisation of African Unity finished in 1998.
January 1999: Government Officials Arrested for Coup Plot
In January 1999, 23 military officers were arrested for allegedly plotting a coup against Mugabe. The government's attempts to suppress the incident and its subsequent actions against journalists drew international condemnation.
April 1999: Mugabe Establishes Constitutional Commission
In April 1999, Mugabe's government formed a Constitutional Commission to draft a new constitution. However, the commission's perceived lack of independence drew criticism from pro-reform groups.
October 1999: Mugabe Faces Citizen's Arrest Attempt in Britain
During a visit to Britain in October 1999, Mugabe was subjected to a citizen's arrest attempt by human rights activist Peter Tatchell, further straining Anglo-Zimbabwean relations.
December 1999: IMF Terminates Financial Support for Zimbabwe
In December 1999, the IMF ended financial support for Zimbabwe, citing concerns about economic mismanagement and corruption.
February 2000: Land Invasions Begin in Zimbabwe
In February 2000, organized groups began invading and occupying white-owned farms in Zimbabwe. The government, led by Mugabe, endorsed these actions, arguing that they were a form of land redistribution.
February 2000: Zimbabweans Reject Proposed Constitution
Zimbabweans voted against a proposed new constitution in a referendum held in February 2000, marking a significant political setback for Mugabe and ZANU-PF.
March 2000: Zimbabwe's High Court Rules Land Invasions Illegal
In March 2000, Zimbabwe's High Court ruled that the ongoing land invasions were illegal, a decision that Mugabe opposed and led to him criticizing the judiciary.
May 2000: Mugabe Issues Decree to Seize Farms
In May 2000, Mugabe issued a decree that empowered the government to seize white-owned farms without providing compensation. This decision further escalated tensions over land ownership in Zimbabwe.
May 2000: UK Freezes Development Aid to Zimbabwe
In May 2000, the UK froze all development aid to Zimbabwe in response to the country's political and economic situation.
June 2000: Parliamentary Elections Held in Zimbabwe
The June 2000 parliamentary elections were a pivotal event in Zimbabwean politics. The opposition Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) made significant gains, challenging ZANU-PF's dominance.
October 2000: MDC Attempts to Impeach Mugabe
In October 2000, Members of Parliament from the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) made an unsuccessful attempt to impeach Mugabe. The attempt was thwarted by Emmerson Mnangagwa, the Speaker of the House and a staunch Mugabe loyalist.
2000: Expansion of Education and Healthcare
By 2000, Zimbabwe witnessed a significant increase in the number of secondary schools, rising from 177 in 1980 to 1,548. The adult literacy rate increased from 62% to 82%, marking significant progress in education. Child immunization rates also saw a dramatic improvement, rising from 25% to 92%.
2000: Zimbabwe's Economy Declines Significantly
By 2000, Zimbabwe's economy had significantly deteriorated, leading to a decline in living standards, life expectancy, and wages. Unemployment also rose sharply during this period.
2000: Mugabe Acknowledges Gukurahundi Killings
In 2000, Mugabe publicly acknowledged the Gukurahundi killings, referring to them as "an act of madness" for which both sides were to blame. This statement, however, was met with criticism, with many, including his biographer Martin Meredith, arguing that Mugabe and ZANU-PF bore sole responsibility for the massacres.
2000: Zimbabwe's Maize Production Peak
In 2000, Zimbabwe reached its peak maize production, yielding over two million tons.
2000: Land Redistribution Campaign
Robert Mugabe initiated a land redistribution campaign in 2000, aiming to seize white-owned farms and redistribute the land to black Zimbabweans.
September 2001: Southern African States Criticize Mugabe
In September 2001, several Southern African states openly criticized Mugabe's leadership and policies during a summit held in Harare.
November 2001: Mugabe Issues Decree for Land Expropriation
In November 2001, Mugabe issued a presidential decree that allowed for the seizure of nearly all white-owned farms in Zimbabwe without compensation.
2002: Zimbabwe's Suspension from the Commonwealth
In 2002, Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth, a group of former British colonies, due to concerns over human rights abuses and the erosion of democratic norms under Mugabe's rule.
2002: Re-election Amidst Controversy
Robert Mugabe secured re-election in 2002, but the election was marred by allegations of violence, electoral fraud, and suppression of opposition.
2002: Mugabe Wins Presidential Election Amidst Controversy
The 2002 Zimbabwean presidential election saw Mugabe secure victory with 56% of the vote, defeating Morgan Tsvangirai. However, the election was widely criticized for being neither free nor fair, with allegations of rigging and voter intimidation.
April 2003: Postponement of Africa-Europe Summit
The Africa-Europe Summit, originally scheduled for April 2003 in Lisbon, faced repeated postponements due to African leaders' refusal to attend if Mugabe, who was facing a travel ban, was excluded.
October 2003: Food Insecurity in Zimbabwe
By October 2003, a report by Human Rights Watch revealed that approximately half of Zimbabwe's population was experiencing food insecurity, lacking sufficient food to meet their basic needs.
2004: EU Imposes Sanctions on Mugabe
In 2004, the European Union imposed sanctions on Mugabe, including a travel ban and asset freeze, as a response to human rights violations and political repression in Zimbabwe.
2005: Allegations of Democide
A 2005 article from the New American accused Robert Mugabe of being responsible for the deaths of millions of Zimbabweans in a "democide."
2005: Unemployment in Zimbabwe
By 2005, the unemployment rate in Zimbabwe had reached an alarming 80%, reflecting the dire state of the economy.
2005: Australia and New Zealand Call for Trial
In 2005, Australia and New Zealand formally requested that Robert Mugabe be tried at the International Criminal Court.
2005: Operation Murambatsvina in Zimbabwe
In 2005, Mugabe initiated Operation Murambatsvina, also known as "Operation Drive Out the Rubbish." This large-scale campaign involved the forced clearance of slums in Zimbabwe, resulting in the displacement of an estimated 700,000 people. The operation was widely condemned for its brutality and alleged political motivations.
2005: Zimbabwe's Declining GDP
Zimbabwe's GDP experienced a significant decline from US$7.4 billion in 2000 to US$3.4 billion in 2005, reflecting the deteriorating economic conditions in the country.
2006: Violence and Impact of Farm Seizures
By 2006, the farm seizures in Zimbabwe had resulted in the deaths of around 60 white farmers and widespread intimidation and violence against farm employees. The seizures also led to a decline in agricultural production and economic hardship.
2006: Zimbabwean NGOs Call for Trial
Numerous Zimbabwean NGOs called for Robert Mugabe to be tried by the International Criminal Court in 2006.
April 2007: Mugabe Orders Elephant Killing
In April 2007, Mugabe ordered the killing of 100 elephants to provide meat for a feast, further exacerbating the problem of poaching in the country.
June 2007: Revocation of Honorary Degree by the University of Edinburgh
The University of Edinburgh revoked an honorary degree awarded to Robert Mugabe in 1984, making him the first international figure to have such an honor stripped by a British university, in June 2007.
2007: British General Reveals Discussion of Zimbabwe Invasion
In 2007, British General Charles Guthrie, former Chief of the Defence Staff, disclosed that he and then-Prime Minister Tony Blair had discussed the possibility of a military intervention in Zimbabwe. However, Guthrie advised against such action, believing it would worsen the situation.
2007: Zimbabwe's Hyperinflation
In 2007, Zimbabwe recorded the world's highest inflation rate at a staggering 7,600%, highlighting the severity of the economic turmoil.
2007: Africa-Europe Summit Held with Mugabe
The long-delayed Africa-Europe Summit finally took place in 2007, with Mugabe in attendance. The summit had been postponed multiple times due to controversy surrounding Mugabe's presence.
March 2008: Zimbabwe Holds Parliamentary and Presidential Elections
Zimbabwe held parliamentary and presidential elections in March 2008. In the parliamentary elections, ZANU-PF secured 97 seats, the MDC won 99 seats, and the MDC-Ncube faction gained 9 seats. The presidential election results, announced in May, showed Morgan Tsvangirai winning 47.9% of the vote and Robert Mugabe receiving 43.2%, necessitating a runoff election.
June 2008: Revocation of Law Degree by UMass Amherst
In June 2008, the University of Massachusetts Amherst revoked an honorary law degree given to Robert Mugabe in 1986.
June 2008: Violence against MDC Supporters
Following the elections in June 2008, Mugabe's government unleashed violence against supporters of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), resulting in the deaths of at least 153 MDC supporters. The violence included reports of gang rape against women affiliated with the MDC.
August 2008: Cholera Outbreak in Zimbabwe
A severe cholera outbreak struck Zimbabwe in late 2008, with over 98,000 cases reported between August 2008 and mid-July 2009, largely attributed to the deterioration of water and sewage systems.
September 2008: Power-Sharing Agreement
In September 2008, a power-sharing agreement was signed between Mugabe's ZANU-PF and the MDC, mediated by the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Under the agreement, Mugabe remained President while Morgan Tsvangirai became Prime Minister.
2008: US and EU Expand Sanctions Against Mugabe
The United States and the European Union expanded their sanctions against Mugabe and his government in 2008, citing continued human rights abuses and economic mismanagement as reasons for the intensified measures.
2008: ZANU-PF's Strategy for the 2013 Elections
To avoid the violence that marred the 2008 elections, ZANU-PF, seeking to maintain credibility with the SADC, opted for a less violent approach in the 2013 elections. Mugabe encouraged supporters to refrain from violence and reduced his own rally appearances.
2008: ZANU-PF's Victory and Concerns of Rigging
ZANU-PF won the 2008 elections with a landslide victory, but the elections were widely considered not free and fair, with allegations of vote rigging and voter intimidation.
2008: Hyperinflation and Economic Crisis in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe's economic crisis reached a peak in 2008 as hyperinflation soared beyond 100,000%. The cost of a loaf of bread amounted to one-third of the average daily wage, leading to significant hardships.
2008: Another Controversial Re-election
Robert Mugabe was re-elected in 2008 in another election widely condemned for violence, intimidation, and manipulation.
July 2009: End of Cholera Outbreak
The cholera outbreak in Zimbabwe, which began in late 2008, lasted until mid-July 2009, resulting in a significant number of cases.
2009: Food Aid Dependency in Zimbabwe
By 2009, Zimbabwe faced a dire situation with 75% of its population reliant on food aid, marking the highest proportion for any nation globally at that time.
2009: Mass Exodus of Skilled Workers from Zimbabwe
By 2009, an estimated three to four million Zimbabweans, many of whom were skilled workers, had left the country.
2009: Calls for Trial at the International Criminal Court
In 2009, legal experts and organizations asserted there was sufficient evidence to put Robert Mugabe on trial at the International Criminal Court for crimes against humanity.
2009: SADC Calls for Lifting Sanctions
In 2009, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) called for Western nations to lift the targeted sanctions imposed on Mugabe and his government, arguing that the sanctions were negatively impacting the Zimbabwean people.
2009: US Dollar Adopted as Legal Tender
In 2009, to combat hyperinflation, Mugabe's government recognized the US dollar as legal tender and used it to pay government employees, which helped stabilize prices.
2011: Scholarly Critiques of Mugabe's Leadership
In 2011, scholars began to publicly critique the narrative of Robert Mugabe as a progressive leader gone awry, pointing to repressive tendencies present throughout his rule.
March 2013: New Constitution Passed
A new constitution was passed in March 2013, marking a significant political development in Zimbabwe.
2013: Mugabe Seeks Re-election
Mugabe, viewing the 2013 election as potentially his last, was determined to secure a decisive victory to solidify his legacy and counter his Western critics.
2013: Third Re-election Amidst Criticism
Robert Mugabe won another term in 2013, but the election was again tainted by accusations of rigging and irregularities.
2013: Mbeki Claims Blair Pressured South Africa for Regime Change in Zimbabwe
In 2013, former South African President Thabo Mbeki asserted that Tony Blair had pressured South Africa to participate in a "regime change scheme" in Zimbabwe, potentially involving military force. Mbeki stated he refused to cooperate, viewing Mugabe as part of the solution rather than the problem.
February 2014: Cataract Operation and 90th Birthday
Mugabe underwent a cataract operation in Singapore in February 2014. Upon his return, he celebrated his 90th birthday at a football stadium in Marondera.
December 2014: Dismissal of Joice Mujuru
Mugabe dismissed his vice-president, Joice Mujuru, in December 2014, accusing her of plotting to overthrow him.
January 2015: Chairperson of the African Union
In January 2015, Mugabe assumed the role of Chairperson of the African Union (AU).
November 2015: Announcement to Seek Re-election
At the age of 94, Mugabe declared his intention to run for re-election as Zimbabwe's president in 2018 and was endorsed as the ZANU-PF candidate.
2015: Chairmanship of the African Union
Robert Mugabe began chairing the African Union in 2015.
February 2016: No Plans for Retirement
Mugabe affirmed in February 2016 that he had no intention of retiring and would remain in power "until God says 'come'".
2016: End of Chairmanship of the African Union
Robert Mugabe concluded his chairmanship of the African Union in 2016.
February 2017: Refusal to Retire or Name Successor
Following his 93rd birthday in February 2017, Mugabe reiterated his refusal to retire or designate a successor but said he would respect his party's choice if they decided to select one.
May 2017: Trip to Mexico and Medical Visits
In May 2017, Mugabe embarked on a week-long trip to Cancún, Mexico, for a conference on disaster risk reduction, drawing criticism for excessive spending from opposition figures. He also made three medical trips to Singapore that year, prompting calls from Grace Mugabe to name a successor.
October 2017: WHO Goodwill Ambassador Appointment and Revocation
The World Health Organization (WHO) appointed Mugabe as a goodwill ambassador in October 2017. This decision was met with widespread criticism, leading WHO to revoke the appointment a day later.
November 2017: Dismissal of Emmerson Mnangagwa and House Arrest
On November 6, 2017, Mugabe dismissed his first vice-president, Emmerson Mnangagwa, fueling speculation about his succession plans. On November 15, 2017, the Zimbabwe National Army placed Mugabe under house arrest at his residence.
November 2017: Removal from ZANU-PF Leadership and Impeachment Proceedings
On November 19, 2017, Mugabe was removed from his position as leader of ZANU-PF, and Emmerson Mnangagwa was appointed as his successor. The party issued an ultimatum to Mugabe: resign by the next day or face impeachment. Mugabe refused to resign. On November 21, 2017, ZANU-PF deputies initiated impeachment proceedings, which the Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai (MDC-T) seconded.
December 2017: Benefits and Diplomatic Status After Resignation
Following his resignation, Mugabe was granted full diplomatic status, a residence, staff, and personal vehicles at public expense. He was allowed to retain his business interests and wealth accumulated during his time in power.
2017: Removal from Presidency
Robert Mugabe was removed from the presidency of Zimbabwe in 2017.
March 2018: Mugabe Challenges Legitimacy of Mnangagwa's Presidency
In March 2018, following his removal from office, Robert Mugabe gave his first interview, stating that he had been ousted in an illegal coup. He refused to recognize Emmerson Mnangagwa's presidency and termed it unconstitutional. However, a lawsuit declared the resignation legal, upholding Mnangagwa's position.
July 2018: Resignation and Supreme Court Ruling
Mugabe resigned as president in July 2018, effective immediately, after negotiations that provided him and his family with immunity from prosecution. The Zimbabwe Supreme Court ruled that his resignation was voluntary.
July 2018: Mugabe Refuses to Endorse Mnangagwa in 2018 Election
On the eve of the 2018 general election, the first in 38 years without Mugabe as a candidate, he announced his refusal to vote for Mnangagwa and ZANU-PF. He instead expressed support for Nelson Chamisa, the MDC candidate. Despite this, Mnangagwa secured re-election.
November 2018: Mugabe's Declining Health Leads to Treatment in Singapore
Emmerson Mnangagwa revealed in November 2018 that Mugabe was unable to walk and had been receiving medical treatment in Singapore for the preceding two months. This marked the beginning of Mugabe's increasingly evident health struggles.
2018: Intention to Run for Re-election
Mugabe, in 2018, intended to run for re-election.
April 2019: Mugabe Hospitalized in Singapore
Mugabe's health continued to decline, leading to his hospitalization in Singapore in April 2019. This marked one of several trips he made to the country for medical treatment, a practice that had become common both during and after his presidency.
September 2019: Mugabe Laid to Rest in Kutama
Despite earlier plans for burial at Heroes Acre, Mugabe was ultimately laid to rest in his hometown of Kutama on September 28, 2019. This decision, as per government statements, was made to honor the wishes of families of deceased national heroes.
September 2019: Dispute and Delay Surround Mugabe's Burial Arrangements
Following Mugabe's death, disagreements arose regarding his final resting place. The Mugabe family initially resisted the government's proposal to bury him at Heroes Acre Cemetery, preferring a burial in Zvimba. After negotiations, the family accepted the government's request, but the burial was delayed for 30 days.
September 2019: Mugabe's State Funeral Held in Harare
Mugabe's state funeral was conducted at the National Sports Stadium in Harare on September 14, 2019. Dignitaries and leaders from various African countries, including Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda, Olusegun Obasanjo, and Cyril Ramaphosa, attended the ceremony to pay their respects.
September 2019: Robert Mugabe Dies in Singapore
Robert Mugabe died on September 6, 2019, at the age of 95 at Gleneagles Hospital in Singapore. While the official cause of death was not revealed, his successor, Emmerson Mnangagwa, later stated that Mugabe had been battling advanced cancer, and chemotherapy had ceased to be effective.
September 2019: Death of Robert Mugabe
Robert Mugabe passed away in September 2019.