History of Syria in Timeline
Syria, officially known as the Syrian Arab Republic, is a West Asian country situated in the Eastern Mediterranean and Levant regions. Bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon, Syria is a republic divided into 14 governorates, with Damascus as its capital and largest city. Its population of 25 million makes it the 57th most populous globally and 8th in the Arab world. Covering 185,180 square kilometers, it ranks as the 87th largest country worldwide.
1916: Sykes-Picot Agreement
In 1916, the Sykes-Picot Agreement secretly divided the post-war Ottoman Empire into zones of influence for France and Britain.
1918: Mosul Oil Discovery and Border Renegotiation
The discovery of oil in Mosul in 1918 led to a renegotiation of the border between British and French zones of influence, giving Mosul to the British.
1920: Establishment of Kingdom of Syria and French Occupation
In 1920, a short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria was established, but French troops occupied the country after the Battle of Maysalun and the San Remo conference.
1920: International Recognition of Syrian Border
The border established after the Mosul oil discovery was internationally recognized in 1920 when Syria became a League of Nations mandate.
July 1925: Start of the Great Syrian Revolt
In July 1925, Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt against the French in the Druze Mountain.
August 1925: Key Battles in the Great Syrian Revolt
In August 1925, several key battles took place between the rebels and the French during the Great Syrian Revolt.
1927: France Subdues Revolt
By the spring of 1927, France regained control after sending reinforcements to quell the revolt.
September 1936: Negotiation of Independence Treaty
In September 1936, Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence.
1937: Sultan al-Atrash Returns to Syria
Sultan al-Atrash returned to Syria in 1937 after being pardoned by the French.
1939: Plebiscite on Sanjak of Alexandretta
In 1939, while under French mandate, Syria held a plebiscite regarding the Sanjak of Alexandretta joining Turkey, which resulted in the formation of Turkey's Hatay Province.
1940: Natural Gas Discovered at Jbessa Field
In 1940, natural gas was discovered at the Jbessa field in Syria.
1940: Vichy France Control
Following the fall of France in 1940, Syria came under the control of Vichy France.
July 1941: British and Free French Occupation
In July 1941, British and Free French forces occupied Syria during World War II.
1945: Syria Joins the United Nations
Syria gained de jure independence in 1945 and became a founding member of the United Nations, legally ending the French Mandate.
April 1946: French Troops Leave Syria
In April 1946, French troops departed from Syria, granting the country de facto independence and leaving a republican government in place.
April 1946: French Evacuation and Republican Government
In April 1946, French troops evacuated Syria, leaving a republican government in power.
May 1948: Syrian Invasion of Palestine
In May 1948, Syrian forces invaded Palestine along with other Arab states as part of the Arab-Israeli War.
1948: Jewish Emigration from Syria
Following the establishment of Israel in 1948, the remaining Jewish community in Syria diminished.
March 1949: First Syrian Coup d'état
The March 1949 Syrian coup d'état, led by Col. Husni al-Za'im, was the first military overthrow in the Arab World since World War II.
1949: Temporary recognition of Turkish sovereignty
The Syrian government briefly recognized Turkish sovereignty over the Sanjak of Alexandretta in 1949.
1949: Start of Tumultuous Period
The period following independence in 1949 was marked by multiple coup attempts.
1953: Personal Status Law enacted
The Personal Status Law, essentially a codified sharia, was enacted in 1953 and amended in 1975.
1954: Overthrow of Adib Shishakli
In 1954, Adib Shishakli, who had abolished multipartyism, was overthrown in a coup, leading to the restoration of the parliamentary system in Syria.
November 1956: Syria-Soviet Pact
In November 1956, following the Suez Crisis, Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union, gaining military equipment but also increasing Soviet influence in the government.
1956: Commercial Quantities of Petroleum Discovered
In 1956, commercial quantities of petroleum were first discovered in northeastern Syria, particularly in areas near al-Hasakah and Dayr az-Zawr.
February 1958: Formation of the United Arab Republic
In February 1958, Syria and Egypt merged to form the United Arab Republic, leading to the cessation of all Syrian political parties' activities.
September 1958: Law 134 Passed
On September 4, 1958, Law 134 was passed in Syria to address peasant mobilization and expand peasant rights. This law aimed to strengthen the position of sharecroppers and agricultural laborers relative to landowners, and established the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs.
1958: Agrarian Reform Begins
Agrarian reform measures were introduced in Syria between 1958 and 1961. These reforms targeted the relationships between agricultural laborers and landowners, land ownership and use, and the organization of agricultural production.
1958: Union with Egypt
In 1958, Syria entered a brief union with Egypt.
1960: Introduction of Television
Television broadcasting began in Syria (and Egypt) in 1960 while they were part of the United Arab Republic, initially in black and white.
September 1961: Syria's Secession from the UAR
Following a coup in September 1961, Syria seceded from the United Arab Republic, ending the political union with Egypt.
1961: Agrarian Reform Concludes
Agrarian reform measures were introduced in Syria between 1958 and 1961. These reforms led to the most substantial redistribution of land since Syria's independence.
1961: Union Dissolution and Renaming
In 1961, the union with Egypt ended after a coup d'état, and Syria was renamed the Arab Republic of Syria.
1961: Instability Following 1961 Coup
The instability that followed the 1961 coup in Syria culminated in the Ba'athist coup of March 1963.
March 1963: Ba'athist Coup
The Ba'ath party seized power in Syria through a coup in March 1963, leading to the establishment of a one-party state and a new socio-political order.
1963: Emergency Law Enacted
Syria enacted the Emergency Law in 1963, suspending many constitutional protections, justified by the ongoing conflict with Israel.
1963: Ba'athist Coup's Impact
The 1963 Ba'athist coup marked a significant turning point in Syrian history, establishing the Ba'ath party's dominance and reshaping the country's socio-political landscape.
1963: Ba'ath Party Coup and Emergency Law
A 1963 coup by the Ba'ath Party led to the establishment of a one-party state and the implementation of emergency law, suspending constitutional rights.
February 1966: Neo-Ba'athist Intra-Party Rebellion
In February 1966, a neo-Ba'athist Military Committee launched an intra-party rebellion, imprisoning President Amin al-Hafiz and establishing a new government.
1966: Censorship and Literary Dissent
Following the 1966 coup, the Ba'ath Party's rule led to increased censorship. This period saw the rise of historical novels as a form of dissent, with authors using depictions of the past to critique the present.
1966: Internal Power Struggles within the Ba'ath Party
In 1966, internal power struggles within the Ba'ath Party resulted in a coup.
1967: Israeli Occupation of Golan Heights
In 1967, Israel occupied the western two-thirds of Syria's Golan Heights region.
1967: Six-Day War
In 1967, Syria joined the Six-Day War between Egypt and Israel, resulting in Israel capturing a significant portion of the Golan Heights.
1967: Ba'ath Party Control of Education
Starting in 1967, the Ba'ath Party implemented strict governmental oversight of all educational institutions in Syria, from schools to universities.
1968: Ba'ath Party Schism
Following the 1966 coup, the Ba'ath Party split into Iraqi-led and Syrian-led movements, with the former ruling Iraq from 1968 to 2003.
November 1970: Corrective Movement and Assad's Consolidation of Power
In November 1970, the Corrective Movement, a bloodless coup, installed Hafiz al-Assad as Syria's leader, transforming the country into a totalitarian dictatorship under his control.
November 1970: Hafiz al-Assad's Rise to Power
Salah Jadid's rule ended in November 1970 when he was deposed by Hafiz al-Assad, who became the new strongman of the Syrian government.
1970: Hafiz al-Assad's Rise to Power
Another coup in 1970 led to Hafiz al-Assad seizing power and consolidating Alawi minority rule.
1970: Syrian Intervention in Black September
In 1970, Syrian forces retreated from Jordan after intervening in the "Black September" conflict, reflecting a disagreement between Jadid and Assad.
1971: End of Tumultuous Period
The period of instability that began in 1949 with several coup attempts ended in 1971.
January 1973: Implementation of a new constitution
In January 1973, Hafiz al-Assad introduced a new constitution in Syria, sparking a national crisis due to its removal of the requirement for the President to be Muslim.
October 1973: Yom Kippur War
In October 1973, Syria and Egypt launched the Yom Kippur War against Israel, which resulted in territorial gains for Israel and significant destruction in Quneitra.
1973: Islamic jurisprudence as a source of legislation
The 1973 constitution declared Islamic jurisprudence as a primary source of legislation in Syria.
1974: Petroleum Becomes Syria's Leading Natural Resource
Petroleum became Syria's primary natural resource and chief export after 1974.
1975: Amendment to the Personal Status Law
The Personal Status Law of 1953, based on sharia, was amended in 1975.
1976: Start of Islamist-led armed revolts
A series of armed revolts, primarily led by the Muslim Brotherhood, began in 1976 against the Assad government.
1976: Syrian Intervention in Lebanon
In early 1976, Syria intervened in the Lebanese Civil War at the invitation of President Suleiman Franjieh to support Christian militias against Palestinian militias.
1976: Color Television Broadcasting
Television broadcasts in Syria transitioned to color in 1976.
1981: Israeli Annexation of Golan Heights
In 1981, Israel effectively annexed the Golan Heights, an action condemned by the UN Security Council.
1981: Israeli Occupation of Shebaa Farms
In 1981, Israel occupied the Shebaa Farms along with the rest of the Golan Heights.
1982: Hama Massacre
The 1982 Hama massacre, in which over 40,000 people were killed by Syrian forces, marked a brutal climax in the Islamist uprising against the government.
1982: End of Islamist-led armed revolts
The period of armed revolts in Syria, largely led by Islamists, concluded in 1982 after government repression and massacres.
1991: Madrid Conference
Syria participated in the Madrid Conference of 1991, engaging in negotiations with Israel alongside Palestine and Jordan.
1995: Peak Oil Production
Syria reached its peak oil production of nearly 600,000 barrels per day in 1995.
March 2000: Hafiz al-Assad's Meeting with Bill Clinton
In March 2000, President Hafiz al-Assad met with President Bill Clinton in Geneva, marking the last direct Syrian-Israeli talks.
June 2000: Death of Hafiz al-Assad and Bashar's Election
Following the death of Hafiz al-Assad in June 2000, his son, Bashar al-Assad, was elected president in an unopposed election.
2000: Bashar al-Assad's Inheritance of Presidency
Bashar al-Assad inherited the presidency from his father, Hafiz al-Assad, in 2000.
2000: Slow Economic Growth
Between 2000 and 2008, Syria's real per capita GDP growth averaged just 2.5% annually.
2000: Hezbollah Claims Shebaa Farms
After Israel's withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000, Hezbollah claimed the withdrawal was incomplete, asserting that Shebaa Farms belonged to Lebanon, not Syria.
2001: Suppression of the Damascus Spring
By autumn 2001, the Damascus Spring movement, which emerged after Bashar al-Assad's election, was suppressed by the authorities.
2001: Declining Exports
Syria's share in global exports began to decline in 2001.
October 2003: Israeli Bombing near Damascus
In October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, claiming it to be a terrorist training facility.
2003: End of Iraqi Ba'ath Rule
The Iraqi-led Ba'ath movement's rule in Iraq ended in 2003.
March 2004: Kurdish-Arab Clashes
Clashes erupted between Syrian Kurds and Arabs in al-Qamishli in March 2004, with signs of rioting also appearing in Qamishli and Hasakeh.
2004: Rising Poverty
Poverty rates in Syria increased from 11% in 2004 to 12.3% in 2007.
April 2005: Syrian Troop Withdrawal from Lebanon
Approximately 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until April 27, 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country after three decades.
April 2005: Syrian Withdrawal from Lebanon
On April 26, 2005, Syrian troops withdrew from Lebanon after a 29-year military presence, following domestic and international pressure after Rafik Hariri's assassination.
2005: UNDP Report on Poverty in Syria
In 2005, the UNDP reported that 30% of the Syrian population lived in poverty, with 11.4% below the subsistence level.
2005: Syrian Withdrawal from Lebanon
Syria ended its military presence in Lebanon in 2005, following international condemnation and the Cedar Revolution triggered by the assassination of Rafic Hariri.
2006: High Population Growth
In 2006, Syria experienced a high population growth rate of 2.7%, increasing the demand for urban and industrial water. Agriculture was the largest water-consuming sector, while domestic use accounted for only 9%.
September 2007: Operation Orchard
In September 2007, foreign jets, suspected to be Israeli, reportedly carried out Operation Orchard, targeting a suspected nuclear reactor in Syria.
2007: Economic Profile
In 2007, Syria faced high unemployment (above 10%), rising poverty rates (12.3%), and relied on exports like fenethylline, oil, and agricultural products. Imports mainly consisted of raw materials, machinery, and equipment.
2008: President as Ba'ath party leader
As of 2008, the President of Syria also held the positions of Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath party and leader of the National Progressive Front.
2008: Slow Economic Growth
Between 2000 and 2008, Syria's real per capita GDP growth averaged just 2.5% annually.
2008: Healthcare Professionals in Syria
In 2008, Syria had 14.9 physicians and 18.5 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.
2008: Refugee Population in Syria
In 2008, Syria hosted a large refugee population, primarily from Iraq (1,300,000), Palestine (543,400), and Somalia (5,200), totaling approximately 1,852,300 people, according to the World Refugee Survey.
2008: Reduction in Syrian Military Service
In 2008, Syria reduced the obligatory military service period to 21 months.
2010: Decline in Exports Due to War
Syria's exports fell from US$12 billion in 2010 to US$4 billion in 2012 due to the civil war.
2010: Human Rights Concerns in Syria
In 2010, Human Rights Watch described Syria's human rights record as "among the worst in the world".
2010: Syrian Economy Dependent on Oil and Agriculture
In 2010, Syria's economy relied heavily on oil and agriculture, with the oil sector contributing 40% of export earnings and agriculture 20% of GDP and employment.
2010: Healthcare Expenditure and Life Expectancy
In 2010, Syria allocated 3.4% of its GDP to healthcare. The life expectancy at birth was 75.7 years (74.2 for males and 77.3 for females).
January 2011: Start of Syrian Civil War
In January 2011, public demonstrations erupted across Syria, marking the beginning of the Syrian civil war. These protests were part of the Arab Spring uprisings and called for President Bashar al-Assad's resignation, an end to Ba'ath Party rule, and government reforms.
March 2011: Start of Syrian Civil War
The Syrian Civil War began in March 2011, leading to a major humanitarian crisis.
March 2011: Internet Activist Arrests Begin
Between March 2011 and August 2012, 13,000 internet activists were arrested in Syria due to internet censorship laws.
April 2011: End of Emergency Law
Syria's Emergency Law, in effect since 1963, was lifted on April 21, 2011.
April 2011: Abolition of the Supreme State Security Court
In April 2011, President Bashar al-Assad abolished the Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) by legislative decree.
November 2011: Syria suspended from Arab League
Syria was suspended from the Arab League in November 2011 following its violent suppression of Arab Spring protests.
November 2011: UN Reports on Child Deaths and Abuse
As of November 9, 2011, during the uprising against President Bashar al-Assad, the UN reported over 250 children among the 3,500 deaths, with reports of boys as young as 11 being gang-raped.
December 2011: Arab League Observer Mission to Syria
In December 2011, the Arab League sent an observer mission to Syria as part of a proposal for a peaceful resolution to the ongoing crisis.
2011: Syria Ranked "Not Free"
In 2011, Freedom House's annual Freedom in the World survey ranked Syria as "Not Free".
2011: Economic Decline Due to War
Syria's GDP declined by over 3% in 2011 due to the civil war, and a further 20% decline was projected for 2012.
2011: Syria's increasing international isolation
Syria became increasingly isolated internationally in 2011 due to the civil war, human rights abuses, and associated killings.
2011: Start of the Syrian Civil War
Political instability, violence, and international isolation hindered foreign investment in Syria, which had been attempting to diversify its economy by focusing on tourism, natural gas, and service sectors. The civil war began in 2011, halting and reversing economic reforms.
2011: Further Reduction in Syrian Military Service
In 2011, Syria further decreased the mandatory military service period to one and a half years.
2011: Start of Syrian Civil War
In 2011, Syria became embroiled in a complex civil war involving multiple factions and international actors.
February 2012: Reports of Human Rights Abuses
In February 2012, reports emerged of significant human rights abuses in Syria. UNICEF reported over 500 child deaths and numerous instances of torture. Human Rights Watch accused both government and rebel forces of violations, including using civilians as human shields, torture, kidnapping, and executions.
May 2012: Impact of the Civil War on Tourism
By May 2012, the Syrian civil war severely impacted the tourism sector, leading to a drop in hotel occupancy rates from 90% before the conflict to less than 15%. Around 40% of tourism sector employees lost their jobs.
May 2012: First multi-party elections
Syria held its first multi-party elections in May 2012, allowing parties outside the ruling coalition to participate, although the opposition boycotted the process.
July 2012: Hama Massacre Allegations
On July 12, 2012, opponents of President Assad claimed that over 200 civilians were massacred and 300 injured in Hama by government forces.
August 2012: Internet Activist Arrests Continue
Between March 2011 and August 2012, 13,000 internet activists were arrested in Syria due to internet censorship laws.
August 2012: Syria suspended from Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspended Syria's membership in August 2012 due to the Assad government's violent actions.
2012: Rojava gains de facto autonomy
The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (Rojava) gained de facto autonomy in 2012 during the Syrian civil war.
2012: New Syrian Constitution
The 2012 Syrian constitution established the roles of the president, prime minister, and People's Council. It nominally designates the prime minister as head of government, though the president holds significant power.
2012: Oil Production Decline
Syria's oil production declined from a peak of nearly 600,000 bpd in 1995 to less than 182,500 bpd in 2012.
2012: Oil and Gas Revenue Contribution
In 2012, oil and gas revenues accounted for approximately 20% of Syria's total GDP and 25% of total government revenue. Over 90% of Syrian oil exports went to EU countries, with the rest going to Turkey.
March 2013: Syrian Interim Government recognized
The Syrian Interim Government, formed during the civil war, was invited to represent Syria at the Arab League in March 2013 and recognized as the sole representative of the Syrian people by several countries.
May 2013: Alawite Casualties in Syrian Civil War
By May 2013, of the estimated 94,000 casualties in the Syrian Civil War, at least 41,000 were Alawites, according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR). President Bashar al-Assad's family is Alawite.
August 2013: Suspected Chemical Weapons Use
In August 2013, the Syrian government was suspected of using chemical weapons against civilians, prompting condemnation from US Secretary of State John Kerry.
2013: Formation of the Syrian Interim Government
The Syrian Interim Government, one of the alternative governments formed during the Syrian Civil War, was established in 2013.
April 2014: 191,369 Deaths in Syrian Civil War
By April 30, 2014, the Syrian Civil War had resulted in 191,369 deaths, with war crimes committed on all sides.
August 2014: UN Criticizes International Community on Syria
In August 2014, UN Human Rights chief Navi Pillay criticized the international community's inaction on the Syrian civil war, which by April 30, 2014, had resulted in 191,369 deaths.
September 2014: ISIS Oil Production Exceeds Government's
In September 2014, ISIS surpassed the Syrian government's oil production, producing 80,000 barrels per day (bpd) compared to the government's 17,000 bpd. The Syrian Oil Ministry reported a further decline in government production to 9,329 bpd by the end of 2014.
2014: Syrian Civil War Displacement
By 2014, approximately 9.5 million Syrians, half the population, were displaced due to the ongoing civil war, with 4 million seeking refuge outside the country.
2014: University Enrollment in Syria
In 2014, Damascus University had 210,000 students enrolled. Syria had six state universities and fifteen private universities.
2014: Oil Production Decline
Syria's oil production dropped to 32,000 barrels per day in 2014, declining significantly from its peak production in 1995.
May 2015: ISIS Captures Phosphate Mines
In May 2015, ISIS seized control of Syria's phosphate mines, a major source of income for the Syrian government.
July 2015: 7.6 Million Internally Displaced in Syria
By July 2015, the UNHCR estimated that 7.6 million people were internally displaced within Syria due to the ongoing civil war.
2015: Oil Production Decline
In 2015, Syria's official oil production figures were reported at 27,000 barrels per day, although it was difficult to determine the amount of oil produced in rebel-held areas.
2015: Syrian Economy Reliant on Unreliable Revenue
As of 2015, the Syrian economy relied on dwindling customs and income taxes, supplemented by Iranian credit lines, having contracted by 60%.
April 2016: Parliamentary elections held in government-controlled areas
Parliamentary elections were held in April 2016 in government-controlled areas of Syria, but were widely denounced as illegitimate by international observers.
April 2017: US Missile Strike on Syrian Air Base
In April 2017, the US Navy launched a missile strike on a Syrian air base allegedly used in a chemical weapons attack.
July 2017: Over 5 Million Syrian Refugees Registered
The UNHCR registered over 5 million Syrian refugees by July 2017, highlighting the massive refugee crisis caused by the conflict.
2017: Formation of the Syrian Salvation Government
The Syrian Salvation Government, another alternative government in Syria, was formed in 2017 during the ongoing civil war.
March 2019: US Recognition of Golan Heights Annexation
In March 2019, US President Donald Trump announced US recognition of Israel's annexation of the Golan Heights.
October 2019: SDF agreement with Syrian Army
In October 2019, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) and the Syrian Army reached an agreement allowing the army to enter SDF-held cities to deter a Turkish attack.
2019: US Airstrike in Syria Kills Civilians
In 2019 a US airstrike in Syria killed civilians, a fact initially concealed by the Military.
2019: Syria's Forest Landscape Integrity Index Ranking
In 2019, Syria ranked 144th globally out of 172 countries in the Forest Landscape Integrity Index, with a mean score of 3.64/10.
2019: Syrian Demographics
As of 2019, Syria's population was estimated at 18,500,000, with Arabs constituting roughly 74% and indigenous Assyrians and Western Aramaic-speakers numbering around 400,000.
2020: Refugee and Displacement Figures
By 2020, over 5.5 million Syrians were living as refugees in the region, while another 6.1 million were internally displaced within Syria.
November 2021: US Acknowledges 2019 Airstrike Deaths
In November 2021, the US Central Command admitted to a 2019 airstrike in Syria that killed civilians, following a New York Times investigation.
2021: Syria Becomes a Narco-State
By 2021, Syria's illegal drug trade, primarily captagon, surpassed its legal exports, making it a significant narco-state. The captagon trade generated at least US$3.4 billion annually, enabling the government to bypass international sanctions.
2022: Syrian elections labeled as a "facade"
The Electoral Integrity Project's 2022 report identified Syrian elections as having the worst electoral integrity globally, alongside Comoros and the Central African Republic.
2023: Syria readmitted to Arab League
After 11 years of suspension, Syria was readmitted to the Arab League in 2023.
2023: Decline of Christian Population in Syria
By 2023, the Christian population in Syria, including Palestinian and Iraqi refugees, had declined to about 500,000 from an estimated pre-war figure of 2.5 million.
2023: Freedom House Report on Syria
In 2023, Freedom House's Freedom in the World report designated Syria as "Worst of the Worst" among "Not Free" countries, giving it the lowest possible score.
2023: Syria's Ranking on Corruption Perceptions Index
In 2023, Syria was ranked the 2nd lowest globally on the Corruption Perceptions Index.
2024: Syria's Ranking in Fragile States Index and World Press Freedom Index
In 2024, Syria was ranked 4th in the Fragile States Index and 2nd worst in the World Press Freedom Index, highlighting its instability and limited press freedom.