Albert Einstein, a German-born theoretical physicist, is considered one of history's most significant scientists. His theory of relativity revolutionized our understanding of gravity, space, and time. Einstein's contributions extended to quantum mechanics, particularly his explanation of the photoelectric effect, which earned him the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. His famous equation, E=mc², illustrating mass-energy equivalence, remains iconic. Beyond scientific contributions, Einstein's work profoundly impacted the philosophy of science.
1900: Graduation from Federal Polytechnic School
Einstein graduated from the federal polytechnic school, receiving his certification to teach mathematics and physics.
1900: Max Planck Introduces Quantum Theory
Max Planck, in 1900, introduced his groundbreaking quantum theory, which revolutionized our understanding of energy and laid the foundation for quantum mechanics.
1900: Einstein's First Paper Submission
Einstein submitted his first paper to Annalen der Physik in 1900, marking the beginning of his published contributions to the scientific world.
February 1901: Swiss Citizenship and Job Search
In February 1901, Einstein successfully became a Swiss citizen. However, he was deemed medically unfit for military service. He faced difficulties finding a teaching position in Swiss schools despite spending almost two years applying.
1901: Publication of "Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena"
Einstein's first paper, "Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena," was published in Annalen der Physik in 1901. This work explored the phenomena of capillary attraction.
1901: Publication of First Paper
In 1901, Annalen der Physik published Einstein's first paper, "Conclusions drawn from the phenomena of capillarity." This paper proposed a model of intermolecular attraction which he later disavowed.
1902: Formation of the Olympia Academy
Einstein formed a discussion group with friends in Bern in 1902, named the Olympia Academy. They discussed science and philosophy, with influences from thinkers like Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, who shaped Einstein's later ideas. Marić, Einstein's future wife, also attended these meetings.
1902: Exploration of Atomic Phenomena from a Statistical Perspective
From 1902 to 1903, Einstein published papers that delved into atomic phenomena from a statistical viewpoint, laying the groundwork for his later work on Brownian motion.
1902: Birth of Lieserl
In early 1902, Mileva Marić gave birth to her and Einstein's daughter, Lieserl, while visiting her parents.
January 1903: Einstein Marries Marić
Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić wed in January 1903.
September 1903: Einstein's Letter Regarding Lieserl
A letter from September 1903 suggests that Einstein's daughter, Lieserl, born earlier in 1902, was either given up for adoption or died in infancy.
1903: Permanent Position at Swiss Patent Office
Einstein's work at the Swiss Patent Office, which included evaluating inventions like a gravel sorter and an electric typewriter, earned him a permanent position in 1903. His work on synchronizing clocks for patent applications may have influenced his special theory of relativity.
1903: Investigation of Atomic Size and Diffusion
In 1903 and 1904, Einstein's research focused on the influence of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena, contributing to the understanding of atomic behavior.
May 1904: Birth of Hans Albert Einstein
Hans Albert Einstein, son of Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić, was born in May 1904 in Bern, Switzerland.
1904: Investigation of Atomic Size and Diffusion
In 1903 and 1904, Einstein's research focused on the influence of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena, contributing to the understanding of atomic behavior.
April 1905: Completion of Doctoral Dissertation
On April 30, 1905, Einstein completed his doctoral dissertation, "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions," dedicated to his friend Marcel Grossman. It was later approved in July 1905 by Professor Alfred Kleiner of the University of Zurich.
June 1905: Publication of "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
Einstein's groundbreaking paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" was published in June 1905. This work introduced his special theory of relativity, revolutionizing our understanding of space, time, and motion.
1905: Publication of the Annus Mirabilis Papers
In 1905, Einstein published four groundbreaking articles in the Annalen der Physik journal, known as the Annus Mirabilis papers. These papers covered the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and mass-energy equivalence, significantly advancing our understanding of physics.
1905: Formulation of Mass–Energy Equivalence
In 1905, Einstein derived the iconic equation E=mc², expressing the equivalence of mass and energy as a consequence of his special relativity theory.
1905: Publication of Paper on Brownian Motion
In 1905, Einstein published a seminal paper on Brownian motion, providing evidence for the existence of molecules.
1905: Einstein Postulates Light Quanta
Einstein, in a groundbreaking 1905 paper, proposed that light consists of localized particles called quanta. This concept, initially met with resistance, laid the foundation for the photon concept and wave-particle duality.
1905: Einstein Publishes on the Photoelectric Effect
Einstein's 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect was instrumental in the development of quantum theory. This work provided crucial evidence for the quantization of light.
1905: Einstein's "Annus Mirabilis"
1905, Einstein's "miracle year," saw the publication of four groundbreaking papers by him on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and mass-energy equivalence.
January 1906: Award of Doctoral Degree
Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on January 15, 1906, from the University of Zurich.
1906: Einstein Promoted to Technical Examiner Second Class
Einstein's career advanced in 1906 when he was promoted to Technical Examiner Second Class at the patent office, demonstrating his competence and dedication, even while pursuing groundbreaking physics research.
1907: Publication of "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It"
In 1907, Einstein published "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It," introducing the equivalence principle and predicting phenomena like gravitational time dilation and redshift.
1907: Einstein Proposes Model of Matter with Oscillating Atoms
In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice vibrates independently as a harmonic oscillator, demonstrating that quantum mechanics could explain the specific heat problem in classical mechanics.
1907: Previous Research on Light and Gravitation
In 1907, Einstein had already begun exploring the relationship between gravitation and light propagation.
1907: Formulation of the Equivalence Principle
In 1907, Einstein formulated the equivalence principle, which asserts that an observer in a freely falling box in a gravitational field would be unable to detect the gravitational field. This principle was a crucial step in Einstein's development of his theories of gravitation.
1907: Beginnings of General Relativity Development
Einstein embarked on the development of his general theory of relativity in 1907, seeking to explain gravity as a geometric property of spacetime.
1908: Teaching Position at the University of Bern
As his time at the Swiss Patent Office came to an end, Einstein secured a junior teaching position at the University of Bern in 1908.
1908: Minkowski's Geometric Interpretation of Special Relativity
Hermann Minkowski reformulated Einstein's special relativity in 1908, providing a geometric interpretation of spacetime and its implications.
1908: Owen Willans Richardson Predicts Change in Magnetic Moment Causes Rotation
In 1908, Owen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body would induce rotation, a consequence of angular momentum conservation. This effect, observable in ferromagnetic materials, laid the groundwork for future experimental investigations.
1908: Einstein Becomes Privatdozent at University of Bern
While working at the patent office, Einstein continued pursuing academia and in 1908, he became a Privatdozent (lecturer) at the University of Bern, signifying his passion for teaching and contributing to academia.
1909: Einstein Publishes on Quantization of Light and Momentum of Quanta
In 1909, Einstein published a paper arguing that Max Planck's energy quanta also possess momentum and behave like independent particles. This contribution further developed the photon concept and wave-particle duality.
1909: Associate Professorship at the University of Zurich
In 1909, after impressing Alfred Kleiner with his lecture on relativistic electrodynamics at the University of Zurich, Einstein was offered and accepted a newly created associate professorship.
July 1910: Birth of Eduard Einstein
Eduard, the second son of Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić, was born in July 1910.
April 1911: Professorship at Charles-Ferdinand University
Einstein was promoted to a full professorship in April 1911 at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague. This move required him to become an Austrian citizen of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During his time in Prague, he produced eleven research papers.
1911: Light Bending by the Sun Estimated
In 1911, Einstein used his equivalence principle to estimate the bending of light by the Sun's gravitational field. This work laid the groundwork for future astronomical observations and further development of his theories.
1911: Planck Reformulates Quantum Theory, Introduces Zero-Point Energy
In 1911, Max Planck further developed his quantum theory and introduced the concept of zero-point energy, a concept that later intrigued Einstein and influenced his research.
1911: Publication of Paper on Gravitational Influence on Light
Einstein further elaborated on the effects of gravity on light in his 1911 paper "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light," predicting the bending of light around massive objects.
July 1912: Return to ETH Zurich
In July 1912, Einstein returned to his alma mater, ETH Zurich, to accept a chair in theoretical physics. He focused on teaching thermodynamics and analytical mechanics, while his research included the molecular theory of heat, continuum mechanics, and developing a relativistic theory of gravitation, assisted by his friend, Marcel Grossmann.
1912: Einstein's Relationship with Elsa Löwenthal Begins
Albert Einstein began a relationship with Elsa Löwenthal, his cousin, in 1912.
1912: Einstein Begins Writing Daily Letters to Family
From 1912, Albert Einstein began writing daily letters to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse during his travels.
June 1913: Development of the Entwurf Theory
Einstein worked on the Entwurf theory, a preliminary version of his general relativity, throughout 1913. This draft theory grappled with the complexities of gravity but was ultimately abandoned.
July 1913: Joining the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Einstein accepted an offer to relocate to Berlin and joined the Prussian Academy of Sciences on July 24, 1913. The offer also included the directorship of the planned Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics and a chair at the Humboldt University of Berlin. This move was appealing to Einstein in part because his then-girlfriend, Elsa Löwenthal, lived in Berlin.
1913: Advancements in Gravitational Theory
By 1913, Einstein reworked his calculations for gravitational lensing, incorporating the Riemann curvature tensor of non-Euclidean four-dimensional spacetime. This advancement was a key step towards his complete theory of gravitation.
1913: Einstein and Stern Explore Zero-Point Energy in Diatomic Molecules
Einstein and Otto Stern, in 1913, investigated the idea of zero-point energy in rotating diatomic molecules, comparing their theoretical predictions with experimental data. Although initially promising, they later withdrew their support for this specific application of the concept.
April 1914: Relocation to Berlin and Humboldt University Appointment
On April 1, 1914, Einstein moved into an apartment in Berlin's Dahlem district and was soon appointed to his position at Humboldt University.
April 1914: Einstein Moves to Berlin, Marić Returns to Zurich
Upon moving to Berlin with Einstein in April 1914, Mileva Marić learned of his infidelity and returned to Zurich with their sons.
October 1914: Opposition to the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three"
When the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three," a document justifying Germany's war efforts, was published in October 1914, Einstein distanced himself from it. He chose instead to sign the pacifistic "Manifesto to the Europeans."
November 1915: Abandonment of the Entwurf Theory
Einstein abandoned the Entwurf theory in November 1915 after discovering flaws in its foundations, leading him to focus on refining his general relativity theory.
1915: Completion of General Relativity
After years of work, Einstein completed his general theory of relativity in 1915, revolutionizing our comprehension of gravity and its cosmic implications.
1915: Einstein's Adoption of Minkowski's Formalism
Einstein incorporated Minkowski's geometric formalism into his general theory of relativity in 1915, further developing our understanding of gravity.
1915: Einstein and de Haas Observe the Richardson Effect
In 1915, Albert Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas published two papers detailing their experimental confirmation of the effect predicted by Owen Willans Richardson in 1908. Their measurements demonstrated that magnetization arises from the alignment of electron angular momenta along the magnetization axis. This experiment, the only one conceived, executed, and published by Einstein himself, provided insights into the contributions of electron spin and orbital motion to magnetization.
1915: General Theory of Relativity
In 1915, Albert Einstein proposed the general theory of relativity, expanding his earlier work to include gravitation.
1915: Completion of Riemannian Geometry Theory
In the fall of 1915, Einstein completed his reimagining of gravitational mathematics using Riemannian geometry. He applied his new theory to both the Sun's behavior as a gravitational lens and the precession of Mercury's perihelion, marking a major milestone in his scientific career.
1916: President of the German Physical Society
Despite his opposition to German policy, Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society in 1916 for a two-year term.
1916: Prediction of Gravitational Waves
Based on his general relativity theory, Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916, ripples in spacetime propagating at the speed of light.
1917: Einstein Proposes Stimulated Emission
During his work on relativity in 1917, Einstein published a paper proposing the concept of stimulated emission, a process fundamental to the development of lasers and masers, demonstrating his impactful contributions beyond relativity.
1917: Application of General Relativity to the Universe and Introduction of the Cosmological Constant
In 1917, Einstein applied his general theory of relativity to cosmology, proposing a static model of the universe. To reconcile his theory with the prevailing belief in a static universe, he introduced the cosmological constant.
1918: Einstein Supports German Democratic Party
In 1918, Albert Einstein publicly demonstrated his political leanings by becoming a signatory of the founding proclamation for the German Democratic Party, a liberal party. This action marked the beginning of his increasingly vocal political views.
February 1919: Einstein and Marić Divorce
On the grounds of having lived apart for five years, Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić were granted a divorce in February 1919.
May 1919: Total Eclipse Validates Einstein's Theory
A total eclipse of the Sun on 29 May 1919 provided an opportunity to test Einstein's theory of gravitational lensing. Observations by Sir Arthur Eddington confirmed Einstein's calculations, validating his theory. This event marked a significant milestone in Einstein's career and was widely reported in newspapers around the world.
November 1919: Einstein's Theory Publicized
On 7 November 1919, The Times newspaper published a banner headline proclaiming a 'Revolution in Science' and stating that Newtonian ideas were overthrown by Einstein's new theory of the universe. This event brought Einstein's theories to the forefront of public consciousness.
1919: Einstein Marries Löwenthal
Albert Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919.
1919: Einstein's Light Quanta Theory Gains Acceptance
Einstein's 1905 concept of light quanta gained widespread acceptance in 1919 due to Robert Millikan's experiments on the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering measurements, solidifying its importance in quantum physics.
1919: Einstein's Rise to Fame
In 1919, Albert Einstein became a scientific celebrity after the confirmation of his general theory of relativity. He was widely recognized and admired by the public, despite most people not understanding his work. The New Yorker even published a vignette about his fame, mentioning how people would stop him on the street to ask about "that theory".
1920: Election to the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1920.
April 1921: Arrival in America
Einstein arrived in New York City on 2 April 1921, where he was welcomed by Mayor John Francis Hylan. He spent three weeks giving lectures, attending receptions, and visiting institutions like Columbia University, Princeton, and the White House.
July 1921: Essay on American Character
In July 1921, Einstein published an essay titled 'My First Impression of the U.S.A.', in which he praised Americans for their joyous and positive attitude towards life, marking his admiration for the American character.
1921: Einstein Nominated for Nobel Prize in Physics
Although he didn't receive it until 1922, Albert Einstein was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".
1921: Nobel Prize in Physics
In 1921, Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.
1921: Einstein Contributes to Planning of Hebrew University
In 1921, Albert Einstein, a staunch supporter of Zionism, was approached by Chaim Weizmann, a fellow scientist and leader of the World Zionist Organization, to assist in fundraising for the proposed Hebrew University. Einstein went beyond fundraising, offering concrete suggestions for the university's structure and academic focus, including proposals for scientific institutes and an Oriental Studies Institute promoting both Hebrew and Arabic.
1921: Election to the Royal Society
In 1921, Einstein became a Foreign Member of the Royal Society.
1922: Nobel Prize in Physics
Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922 "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect." However, the Nobel committee did not endorse his idea of light's particulate nature.
1922: Membership in International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation
From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the Geneva-based International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. He worked alongside notable figures such as Hendrik Lorentz and Marie Curie to foster collaboration among intellectuals worldwide.
1922: Nobel Prize in Physics Awarded to Einstein
In 1922, Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The prize was actually carried forward from 1921 as no nominations that year met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel.
1922: Tour of Asia and Palestine
In 1922, Einstein toured Asia, where he spoke in Japan, Singapore, and Sri Lanka. He met Emperor Yoshihito in Tokyo and observed the cultural attributes of the Japanese people. He also spent twelve days in Mandatory Palestine, receiving a warm welcome from the British High Commissioner.
1923: Einstein's Relationship with Betty Neumann
In 1923, while married to Elsa Löwenthal, Albert Einstein began a relationship with Betty Neumann, his friend's niece.
1923: Awarded Spanish Academy of Sciences Membership
In 1923, Einstein visited Spain, where he was awarded a membership in the Spanish Academy of Sciences. He received the diploma from King Alfonso XIII and met fellow Nobel laureate Santiago Ramón y Cajal.
1924: Acceptance of Light's Particulate Nature and Election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
S. N. Bose's derivation of the Planck spectrum in 1924 led to the scientific community's acceptance of the particulate nature of light, a concept Einstein had previously proposed. In the same year, he was elected an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
1924: Einstein Translates and Expands on Bose's Statistical Model
In 1924, Einstein translated and extended Satyendra Nath Bose's statistical model of light particles, applying it to atoms and predicting the Bose-Einstein condensate.
1925: Einstein Criticizes Bolshevik Rule
By 1925, Albert Einstein's views on the Bolsheviks had evolved into criticism of their governance. He condemned their lack of a "well-regulated system of government" and labeled their rule a "regime of terror and a tragedy in human history," highlighting his evolving political stance.
1925: Einstein Expresses Discontent with Modern Quantum Mechanics
Despite his contributions to its early development, Einstein became disillusioned with the interpretation of quantum mechanics that emerged after 1925. He questioned its fundamental randomness and remained a critic, advocating for a more complete theory.
1925: Award of the Royal Society's Copley Medal
Einstein received Britain's equivalent of the Nobel award, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, in 1925.
1925: Hebrew University of Jerusalem Opens with Einstein's Support
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, for which Albert Einstein had been a crucial advocate and fundraiser, officially opened its doors in 1925. This marked the culmination of years of effort by Einstein and other prominent figures to establish a world-class institution of higher learning in Jerusalem.
1926: Einstein and Szilárd Co-Invent the Einstein Refrigerator
In 1926, Albert Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd collaborated on the invention of the Einstein refrigerator, a revolutionary absorption refrigerator with no moving parts, utilizing only heat as input.
1926: Einstein Supports de Broglie's Wave Mechanics
Einstein recognized and supported Louis de Broglie's work on wave mechanics, which was initially met with skepticism. He further showed that de Broglie's waves could explain existing quantum rules, influencing Erwin Schrödinger's work in 1926.
1926: Gilbert N. Lewis Coins the Term "Photon"
Although Einstein introduced the concept of light quanta in 1909, the term "photon" was coined later in 1926 by Gilbert N. Lewis, illustrating the evolving terminology in physics and how ideas are attributed and refined over time.
1929: Hubble's Discovery of the Expanding Universe
Edwin Hubble's 1929 discovery of the expanding universe challenged Einstein's static model and led him to revisit his cosmological ideas.
1929: Einstein Expresses Mixed Views on Bolsheviks and Lenin
In 1929, Albert Einstein's perspective on the Bolsheviks continued to evolve, adopting a more nuanced approach. While still critical of their methods, he began expressing a degree of admiration for their goals, notably praising Vladimir Lenin, illustrating his complex and shifting political views.
November 1930: Einstein and Szilárd Awarded Patent for Einstein Refrigerator
On November 11, 1930, Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd were granted U.S. patent 1,781,541 for their innovative Einstein refrigerator. Although not immediately commercially produced, their promising patents were later acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux.
December 1930: Research Fellowship at Caltech
In December 1930, Einstein began a significant two-month research fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. Caltech supported his wish for limited media attention, allowing him to focus on his research while still accommodating some fan interactions.
1930: Einstein Expresses Sympathy for Vegetarianism
Albert Einstein's inclination towards vegetarianism became evident in 1930 when he expressed his sympathy for the movement in a letter to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the German Vegetarian Federation. This indicated his growing concern about the ethical and potentially health-related implications of meat consumption.
1930: Election to the American Philosophical Society
Einstein was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1930.
1930: Einstein's Debate with Bohr on Quantum Mechanics
In 1930, Albert Einstein engaged in a debate with Niels Bohr, expressing his reservations about quantum mechanics. While acknowledging its predictive accuracy, Einstein believed a more fundamental theory existed. He proposed a thought experiment involving two interacting objects separated by a large distance, highlighting the concept of quantum entanglement. He argued that the instantaneous change in the wavefunction of one object upon measuring the other contradicted the principle of locality, suggesting that quantum mechanics provided an incomplete description of reality.
May 1931: Einstein Explores Academic Opportunities
Between May 1931 and June 1933, Einstein made three short visits to Christ Church, Oxford, where he was offered a five-year research fellowship.
September 1931: Einstein Connects with Mahatma Gandhi
In September 1931, Albert Einstein and Mahatma Gandhi established a connection through an intermediary, Wilfrid Israel. Although they never met in person, they exchanged letters, and Einstein expressed deep admiration for Gandhi, viewing him as a role model for future generations.
1931: Einstein Explores Steady-State Universe Model
In 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe where matter density stays constant due to continuous matter creation, a process linked to the cosmological constant. This model aimed to align with Hubble's observations of receding galaxies.
1931: Proposal of the Friedmann–Einstein Universe Model
In 1931, Einstein, in collaboration with Alexander Friedmann, proposed a dynamic universe model that incorporated the expansion observed by Hubble.
1931: Einstein Plays Music with Zoellner Quartet
In 1931, while researching at the California Institute of Technology, Albert Einstein indulged his love for music by playing Beethoven and Mozart with members of the renowned Zoellner Quartet at the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles. This illustrated his lifelong passion for music and his interactions with prominent musicians.
1932: Proposal of the Einstein–de Sitter Universe Model
Einstein and Willem de Sitter collaborated in 1932 to propose another dynamic universe model, further refining their understanding of the cosmos.
1932: End of Service in International Committee
In 1932, Einstein's tenure with the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation came to an end. His contributions to the committee fostered international collaboration among scientists and intellectuals.
1932: FBI Opens Secret Dossier on Einstein
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) initiated a secret dossier on Albert Einstein in 1932 due to his outspoken political views, particularly his advocacy for a democratic global government and pacifism. This marked the beginning of decades of government surveillance on the renowned scientist.
February 1933: Decision Not to Return to Germany
In February 1933, while visiting the United States, Einstein decided not to return to Germany due to the rise of the Nazis under Adolf Hitler. This decision marked a significant turning point in his life.
March 1933: Einstein Renounces German Citizenship
In March 1933, upon learning about the Nazi's rise to power and the Enabling Act, which effectively made Hitler a dictator, Einstein and his wife, returning from a trip, decided not to return to Berlin. Upon arriving in Antwerp, Belgium on March 28, Einstein immediately renounced his German citizenship at the German consulate. The Nazis later seized his property, including his sailboat and cottage.
March 1933: Resignation from the Prussian Academy
In March 1933, Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy. His significant contributions in Berlin included finalizing his general theory of relativity, proving the Einstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and developing Bose–Einstein statistics.
April 1933: Nazi Regime Imposes Restrictions on Jewish Scientists
In April 1933, the new German government, led by the Nazi party, implemented discriminatory laws that banned Jewish citizens from holding any official positions. This included positions at universities, leading to the expulsion of thousands of Jewish scientists, including Albert Einstein.
June 1933: Einstein Explores Academic Opportunities
Between May 1931 and June 1933, Einstein made three short visits to Christ Church, Oxford, where he was offered a five-year research fellowship.
July 1933: Einstein Finds Temporary Refuge in England
In July 1933, Einstein visited England for six weeks at the invitation of British Parliament member Oliver Locker-Lampson, who provided a safe haven in a secluded cabin near Cromer for protection against potential threats.
September 1933: Einstein Advocates for Displaced Jewish Scientists
In September 1933, Einstein actively reached out to leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, to advocate for the placement of Jewish scientists who had been displaced from their positions in Germany. His efforts resulted in over a thousand individuals finding refuge and continuing their work in Turkey.
October 1933: Einstein Champions Academic Freedom
On October 3, 1933, Einstein gave a significant speech at the Royal Albert Hall in London, emphasizing the critical importance of academic freedom. He received a standing ovation from the audience, as reported by The Times. A few days later, he moved to the US and started working at the Institute for Advanced Study, which became a haven for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.
1933: Einstein Leaves Germany
In 1933, upon Adolf Hitler's rise to power, Albert Einstein, horrified by the Nazi persecution of Jews, chose to stay in the United States.
1933: Einstein and Löwenthal Emigrate to the US
Albert Einstein and Elsa Löwenthal emigrated to the United States in 1933.
1935: Einstein Decides to Stay in the US
In 1935, after considering offers from several European universities, Einstein made the significant decision to permanently reside in the United States and applied for citizenship.
1935: Einstein and Rosen Propose Wormhole Model
In 1935, Einstein and Nathan Rosen proposed the Einstein-Rosen bridge, a theoretical model of a wormhole. This model aimed to describe elementary particles with charge through gravitational field equations.
1935: Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen's EPR Paradox
In 1935, Albert Einstein, along with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, published a paper outlining the EPR paradox. This thought experiment involved two entangled particles, arguing that quantum mechanics' inability to simultaneously describe both position and momentum contradicted the principle of locality and their proposed "EPR criterion of reality." They concluded that quantum theory offered an incomplete picture of reality.
1935: Einstein Settles in Princeton
In 1935, Albert Einstein settled in Princeton, New Jersey, where he resided until his passing in 1955. His home in Princeton was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976.
1935: Löwenthal's Health Deteriorates
Elsa Löwenthal was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935.
December 1936: Elsa Löwenthal's Death
Elsa Löwenthal, Albert Einstein's second wife, passed away in December 1936 due to heart and kidney problems.
1937: Einstein's Passion for Music Continues
Despite not pursuing music professionally, music remained a significant part of Albert Einstein's life. He was an avid violinist, playing chamber music with both amateurs and professionals, including physicist Max Planck. However, contrary to a common misconception, he was not the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalog of Mozart's work; that was Alfred Einstein, a potential distant relative.
July 1939: Einstein's Letter to President Roosevelt
In July 1939, as World War II loomed, Einstein, persuaded by physicist Leó Szilárd and others, wrote a letter to President Roosevelt. The letter warned about the potential development of atomic bombs by Nazi Germany and urged the US to engage in its own nuclear research.
1940: Einstein Becomes a US Citizen
Albert Einstein was granted American citizenship in 1940.
1940: Einstein Becomes a US Citizen
In 1940, Albert Einstein officially became a citizen of the United States. After establishing his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, he openly expressed his admiration for American culture, particularly its meritocratic values and the freedom it offered to individuals. He contrasted this positively with the social barriers he had observed in Europe.
1945: Einstein Expresses Views on Zionism and Nationalism
In 1945, Albert Einstein, in a letter to Judge Jerome Frank, articulated his complex views on Zionism and nationalism. He supported the development of a Jewish homeland in Palestine while advocating for a binational solution, where Jews and Arabs shared sovereignty. He expressed his dislike for nationalism, even Jewish nationalism, but acknowledged its necessity in a hostile world.
1946: Einstein Receives Honorary Degree and Speaks Out Against Racism
In 1946, Albert Einstein was awarded an honorary degree from Lincoln University, a historically black college in Pennsylvania. During his visit, he delivered a powerful speech condemning racism in America, emphasizing his refusal to stay silent on the issue. Einstein's own experiences as a Jewish man who faced discrimination likely fueled his empathy for the struggles of African Americans.
1946: Einstein Reiterates Support for Binational Palestine
In 1946, Albert Einstein reaffirmed his stance on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in a letter to Maurice Dunay. He expressed support for the development of a Jewish homeland in Palestine but not as a separate state. This reinforced his belief in a binational solution for the region.
1948: Einstein Undergoes Surgery for Aneurysm
In 1948, Albert Einstein underwent surgery to address an abdominal aortic aneurysm. This medical procedure highlighted his health challenges, even as he remained a prominent figure in the scientific community and beyond.
1950: Einstein's Unified Field Theory
In 1950, Albert Einstein published an article in Scientific American titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation," detailing his unified field theory. This ambitious endeavor aimed to unify gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. Despite garnering recognition, his theory faced limitations, notably its inability to incorporate the strong and weak nuclear forces, which remained poorly understood at the time. Although ultimately unsuccessful, Einstein's pursuit of a unified theory continues to inspire physicists today.
1951: Einstein's Support for Civil Rights
Albert Einstein was a strong advocate for civil rights and saw racism as a pervasive issue in the United States. He demonstrated his commitment to fighting racial injustice by joining the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton and actively campaigning for African American civil rights. He was particularly vocal about his opposition to racial segregation in educational institutions, believing it to be detrimental to society.
November 1952: Einstein Declines Offer of Israeli Presidency
Following the death of Israeli President Chaim Weizmann in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered the presidency to Albert Einstein. Despite being deeply honored, Einstein declined the largely ceremonial position, citing his age and lack of experience in such a role.
January 1954: Einstein Pens Letter to Eric Gutkind
In January 1954, Albert Einstein wrote a significant letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind. The contents of this letter, written in German, are not provided in the context, but its existence is highlighted as an event in Einstein's later years.
March 1954: Einstein Adopts Vegetarianism
In March 1954, Albert Einstein adopted a vegetarian diet. He announced this dietary shift in a letter, stating his reasons for abstaining from meat, fish, and fats, noting his improved well-being and questioning the human predisposition to carnivorism.
1954: Einstein Expresses Regret over Atomic Bomb Letter
In 1954, expressing deep regret, Einstein confided in his friend Linus Pauling about his involvement in the development of the atomic bomb. He admitted signing the letter to President Roosevelt, which recommended the US engage in atomic bomb research, was a significant mistake, justifying it by the threat of Nazi Germany developing the weapon first.
April 1955: Einstein Hospitalized and Dies
In April 1955, Albert Einstein was hospitalized due to internal bleeding caused by a ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm. Despite having undergone surgery for the condition in 1948, his health deteriorated. He passed away at the hospital, leaving behind a legacy that continues to inspire generations.
April 1955: Death of Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein passed away in April 1955.
1955: Einstein's Anti-Nuclear Advocacy
In 1955, shortly before his passing, Einstein, along with ten other intellectuals and scientists, including Bertrand Russell, signed a powerful manifesto. This document highlighted the immense dangers posed by nuclear weapons, a testament to Einstein's commitment to peace.
1955: Mount Einstein Named in Alaska
In 1955, Mount Einstein in the Chugach Mountains of Alaska was named in honor of Albert Einstein.
1955: Einstein's Daily Letters to Family End
Albert Einstein's practice of writing daily letters to his family ceased in 1955.
1955: Einstein's Passing
Albert Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study lasted until his death in 1955.
1955: Einsteinium Named After Einstein
A few months after Albert Einstein's death in 1955, the synthetic chemical element, Einsteinium, was named in his honor.
1960: Posthumous Recognition by World Academy of Art and Science
In 1960, Einstein received posthumous recognition for his contributions to science and his stance on ethical scientific advancements, particularly in light of the nuclear weapons threat. He was honored as a charter member of the World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS), an organization founded by leading scientists and intellectuals.
1961: Einstein-de Haas Equipment Donated to Ampère Museum
In 1961, Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of Wander Johannes de Haas and daughter of Hendrik Lorentz, donated the original Einstein-de Haas experimental apparatus to the Ampère Museum in Lyon, France.
1964: John Stewart Bell and Bell's Inequality
In 1964, John Stewart Bell advanced the analysis of quantum entanglement, deriving Bell's inequality. This mathematical constraint on correlated outcomes of measurements on entangled particles challenged the viability of local hidden variable theories to explain quantum phenomena. Bell demonstrated that quantum mechanics predicted correlations violating this inequality, suggesting that any hidden variable theory explaining quantum behavior would necessitate nonlocality—a concept Einstein found unfavorable.
December 1965: J. Robert Oppenheimer Delivers Memorial Lecture on Einstein
In December 1965, renowned nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer delivered a poignant memorial lecture at UNESCO headquarters, paying tribute to Albert Einstein. Oppenheimer's speech offered insights into Einstein's personality, highlighting his lack of pretense, his childlike purity, and his profound stubbornness.
1970: Mount Einstein Named in New Zealand
The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in New Zealand named a mountain in the Paparoa Range "Mount Einstein" in 1970, honoring Albert Einstein.
1976: Einstein's Home Becomes National Historic Landmark
In 1935, Albert Einstein settled in Princeton, New Jersey, where he resided until his passing in 1955. His home in Princeton was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976.
1986: Margot Einstein Passes Away
Margot Einstein, stepdaughter of Albert Einstein, passed away in 1986. Before her death, she stipulated that her father's personal letters, bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, be made available to the public twenty years after her passing.
1987: Correspondence Reveals Lieserl
Correspondence between Einstein and Marić, discovered and published in 1987, revealed that Marić gave birth to their daughter, Lieserl, in early 1902.
1995: First Bose-Einstein Condensate Created
In 1995, Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman experimentally created the first Bose-Einstein condensate, validating Einstein's prediction from 1924 and highlighting his lasting impact on physics.
1999: Einstein Ranked Greatest Physicist
A 1999 Physics World poll of leading physicists ranked Albert Einstein as the greatest physicist of all time.
2006: Einstein's Letters Reveal Other Relationships
In 2006, letters released by Hebrew University revealed Albert Einstein had romantic relationships with several other women.
2013: Evidence Found of Einstein's Steady-State Model Consideration
In 2013, physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh and his team discovered a manuscript from 1931 where Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe, challenging his previous stance and highlighting his continuous exploration of cosmological concepts.
December 2014: Release of Einstein's Papers
In December 2014, universities and archives released a collection of Einstein's papers, containing over 30,000 unique documents. This release provided further insights into the works of the renowned physicist.
September 2015: First Detection of Gravitational Waves
The groundbreaking detection of gravitational waves occurred in September 2015, marking a momentous achievement in astrophysics and validating Einstein's predictions.
2015: Einstein's Right of Publicity Litigated
In 2015, Albert Einstein's right of publicity was the subject of litigation in a California federal district court. Despite an initial ruling that the right had expired, the decision was appealed and later vacated. The lawsuit was settled, establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem as the exclusive representative of Einstein's right of publicity, with Corbis managing the licensing of his name and image.
February 2016: Confirmation of Gravitational Waves
About a century after Einstein's prediction, researchers at LIGO announced the first direct observation of gravitational waves in February 2016, confirming a crucial aspect of general relativity.
2023: Einstein-de Haas Equipment Rediscovered
The original Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment, donated to the Ampère Museum in Lyon, France, in 1961, was rediscovered in 2023 after being misplaced among the museum's collection.