History of Fascism in Timeline
Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultranationalist ideology prominent in early 20th-century Europe. It features a dictatorial leader and centralized autocracy, emphasizing militarism and suppression of opposition. Fascism prioritizes the nation's or race's perceived interests over individual rights, imposing strict societal and economic control. Positioned on the far right, it opposes communism, democracy, liberalism, pluralism, and socialism, advocating for a hierarchical social structure.
1902: Mussolini begins studying Sorel, Nietzsche and Pareto
By 1902, Mussolini was studying Georges Sorel, Nietzsche and Vilfredo Pareto. Sorel's emphasis on the need for overthrowing decadent liberal democracy and capitalism by the use of violence, direct action, general strikes and neo-Machiavellian appeals to emotion impressed Mussolini deeply.
1908: Marinetti Founded Manifesto of Futurism
In 1908, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti founded the Manifesto of Futurism, championing modernism, action, and political violence as necessary elements of politics, while denouncing liberalism and parliamentary politics.
1908: Sorel Promoted Political Violence
In 1908, French revolutionary syndicalist Georges Sorel promoted the legitimacy of political violence in his work "Reflections on Violence", advocating radical syndicalist action to overthrow capitalism through a general strike.
1908: Mussolini writes Philosophy of Strength
In 1908, Mussolini wrote a short essay called "Philosophy of Strength" based on his Nietzschean influence, in which Mussolini openly spoke fondly of the ramifications of an impending war in Europe in challenging both religion and nihilism.
1909: Sorel's Shift to the Radical Right
By 1909, after the failure of a syndicalist general strike in France, Georges Sorel and his supporters left the radical left and went to the radical right, seeking to merge militant Catholicism and French patriotism with their views.
1910: Sorel Abandoned Socialist Literature
In 1910, Georges Sorel announced his abandonment of socialist literature.
August 1914: Split in the Italian Political Left
In August 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, the Italian political left became severely split over its position on the war.
October 1914: Formation of Revolutionary Fasces of International Action
In October 1914, Angelo Oliviero Olivetti formed a pro-interventionist fascio called the Revolutionary Fasces of International Action.
1914: Brutalization of Societies
Historian George Mosse analyzed fascism as a result of the brutalization of societies in 1914–1918.
1914: Enrico Corradini develops the idea of "proletarian nations"
In 1914, Enrico Corradini developed the idea of "proletarian nations", defining proletarian as being one and the same with producers. This productivist perspective associated all people deemed productive, including entrepreneurs, technicians, workers and soldiers as being proletarian. Mussolini later adopted this view in his description of the proletarian character.
1914: Sorel Claimed Socialism is Dead
In 1914, Georges Sorel claimed that "socialism is dead" because of the "decomposition of Marxism".
1914: Plenge Spoke of the Rise of a National Socialism
In 1914, German sociologist Johann Plenge spoke of the rise of a "National Socialism" in Germany within what he termed the "ideas of 1914". According to Plenge, the "ideas of 1789"—such as the rights of man, democracy, individualism and liberalism—were being rejected in favor of "the ideas of 1914" that included "German values" of duty, discipline, law and order.
1914: Use of Fasces Symbol
Prior to 1914, the fasces symbol was widely employed by various political movements, often of a left-wing or liberal persuasion. Marianne, symbol of the French Republic, was often portrayed in the nineteenth century carrying the fasces to represent the force of Republican solidarity against her aristocratic and clerical enemies.
January 1915: First Meeting of the Fasces of Revolutionary Action
On 24 January 1915, the first meeting of the Fasces of Revolutionary Action was held when Mussolini declared that it was necessary for Europe to resolve its national problems including national borders.
1915: Fasces of Revolutionary Action Founded
In 1915, Benito Mussolini founded the Fasces of Revolutionary Action in Italy, according to his own account. These groups were similar to guilds or syndicates. The term "fascism" was first used in 1915 by members of Mussolini's movement, the Fasces of Revolutionary Action.
1915: First Use of the Term "Fascism"
In 1915, the term "fascism" was first used by members of Mussolini's movement, the Fasces of Revolutionary Action.
1917: October Revolution's Influence
In 1917, the October Revolution, in which Bolshevik communists led by Vladimir Lenin seized power in Russia, greatly influenced the development of fascism. In 1917, Mussolini praised the October Revolution.
1918: Brutalization of Societies
Historian George Mosse analyzed fascism as a result of the brutalization of societies in 1914–1918.
June 1919: Presentation of The Fascist Manifesto
In June 1919, The Fascist Manifesto was presented in the fascist newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia, supporting universal suffrage, proportional representation, government representation through "National Councils", an eight-hour work day, a minimum wage, worker representation, reorganization of transportation, revision of invalidity insurance, reduction of the retirement age, a strong progressive tax on capital, confiscation of religious property, revision of military contracts, fulfillment of expansionist aims, creation of a national militia, nationalization of armaments, and a competitive foreign policy.
1919: Mussolini Founded Italian Fasces of Combat
In 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the Italian Fasces of Combat in Milan. This organization later became the National Fascist Party two years later.
1919: Fascist Manifesto co-authored by Marinetti
In 1919, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, founder of the Futurist art movement, co-authored the Fascist Manifesto.
1919: Start of the "Red Year" in Italy
In 1919, Italy began what was known as the "Red Year" (Biennio Rosso). During this period, Mussolini and the fascists took advantage of the situation by allying with industrial businesses and attacking workers and peasants.
1919: Founding of the Italian Fasces of Combat
In 1919, Mussolini consolidated control over the fascist movement, known as Sansepolcrismo, with the founding of the Italian Fasces of Combat.
1919: Mussolini declares Jewish bankers connected to Russian Bolsheviks
In 1919, Mussolini declared that the Jewish bankers in London and New York were connected by race to the Russian Bolsheviks and that eight percent of the Russian Bolsheviks were Jews.
1920: Organization against fascism begins
Around 1920, organization against fascism began.
1920: Garvey's Actions
C. L. R. James wrote "all the things that Hitler was to do so well later, Marcus Garvey was doing in 1920 and 1921".
1920: Peak of militant strike activity in Italy
In 1920, militant strike activity by industrial workers reached its peak in Italy. Mussolini and the fascists allied with industrial businesses and attacked workers and peasants.
1920: Influence of Fiume raid and Charter of Carnaro
In 1920, the raid of Fiume by Gabriele d'Annunzio and the founding of the Charter of Carnaro influenced the fascists in Italy. The Charter of Carnaro advocated national-syndicalist corporatist productionism and was seen by many fascists as an ideal constitution for a fascist Italy. Also in 1920, Italian fascists persecuted South Slavs, especially Slovenes and Croats.
1921: Fascist movement membership soars
By 1921, after Fascism's accommodation of the political right, the fascist movement's membership soared to approximately 250,000.
1921: Garvey's Actions
C. L. R. James wrote "all the things that Hitler was to do so well later, Marcus Garvey was doing in 1920 and 1921".
October 1922: Fascist Party Congress in Naples
On 24 October 1922, the Fascist Party held its annual congress in Naples, ordering Blackshirts to take control of public buildings and trains, converging on Rome. By 30 October, King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister of Italy, avoiding bloodshed in Rome.
1922: Escalation of Fascist Paramilitary Strategy
Beginning in 1922, fascist paramilitaries escalated their strategy from attacking socialist offices and homes to violent occupation of cities with little serious resistance from authorities. The fascists attacked the headquarters of socialist and Catholic labor unions in Cremona and imposed forced Italianization upon the German-speaking population of Bolzano, after which they planned to take Rome.
1922: Fascism becomes the state ideology of Italy
In 1922, Fascism became the state ideology of Italy.
November 1923: Failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich
In November 1923, the Nazis, led by Hitler and Erich Ludendorff, attempted a "March on Berlin" modeled upon the March on Rome, which resulted in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich.
January 1925: Mussolini declares responsibility for Fascist actions
On 3 January 1925, Mussolini addressed the Fascist-dominated Italian parliament and declared that he was personally responsible for what happened but insisted that he had done nothing wrong, proclaiming himself dictator of Italy.
December 1925: Decree making Mussolini solely responsible to the King
In December 1925, a decree made Mussolini solely responsible to the King.
1925: Creation of Palazzo Vidoni Pact
In 1925, the fascist regime created a corporatist economic system with the Palazzo Vidoni Pact, in which the Italian employers' association Confindustria and fascist trade unions agreed to recognize each other, excluding non-fascist trade unions.
1925: Partial realization of women's suffrage
In late 1925, women's suffrage was partially realized in Italy, with all opposition parties banned or disbanded.
1926: Policies promoting family values
In 1926, as part of an effort to accommodate Italian conservatives, fascism banned literature on birth control and increased penalties for abortion, declaring both crimes against the state.
1927: Charter of Labour
In 1927, the Fascist regime created the Charter of Labour, which established workers' rights and duties and created labor tribunals to arbitrate employer-employee disputes.
1929: Entrenchment of Fascism
From 1925 to 1929, fascism steadily became entrenched in power, marked by the denial of access to parliament for opposition deputies and the introduction of censorship.
1929: Lateran Treaty
In 1929, the fascist regime gained a blessing from the Catholic Church after signing the Lateran Treaty, granting the papacy state sovereignty and financial compensation for the seizure of Church lands in the 19th century.
1929: The onset of the Depression
Starting in 1929, the Depression, a crisis of laissez-faire capitalism and parliamentary democracy, allowed fascism to be presented as a 'third-way' alternative between capitalism and Bolshevism, a new European 'civilization'.
1931: The Revolutionary Union in power in Peru
In 1931, the Revolutionary Union, a fascist political party, was in power in Peru.
1932: Gyula Gömbös becomes Prime Minister of Hungary
In 1932, Hungarian fascist Gyula Gömbös rose to power as Prime Minister of Hungary and attempted to entrench his Unity Party, create an eight-hour work day and a forty-eight-hour work week, entrench a corporatist economy, and pursue irredentist claims.
1932: Publication of The Doctrine of Fascism
In 1932, Mussolini and Giovanni Gentile described their ideology as right-wing in the political essay "The Doctrine of Fascism", stating: "We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the 'right,' a fascist century."
1933: Rise of the Iron Guard in Romania
After 1933, the fascist Iron Guard movement in Romania soared in political support, gaining representation in the Romanian government. Also in 1933, an Iron Guard member assassinated Romanian prime minister Ion Duca.
1933: Fascism becomes the state ideology of Germany
In 1933, Fascism became the state ideology of Germany, spurring a large increase in anti-fascist action, including German resistance to Nazism and the Italian resistance movement.
1933: The Revolutionary Union in power in Peru
In 1933, the Revolutionary Union, a fascist political party, was in power in Peru.
1933: Rise of Hitler and the Nazis
In 1933, with the rise of Hitler and the Nazis to power in Germany, liberal democracy was dissolved, and the Nazis mobilized the country for war, with expansionist territorial aims against several countries.
February 1934: Political turmoil in France
During the 6 February 1934 crisis, France faced domestic political turmoil when the fascist Francist Movement and far-right movements rioted en masse in Paris against the French government.
July 1934: Salazar abolished authentic fascist movement
In July 1934, Salazar abolished Rolão Preto's blue-shirted National Syndicalists, the nearest thing Portugal had to an authentic fascist movement.
1934: Antagonism between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy
After antagonism exploded between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy over the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss in 1934, Mussolini and Italian fascists denounced and ridiculed Nazism's racial theories, particularly by denouncing its Nordicism, while promoting Mediterraneanism.
1934: Mussolini declares women's employment a problem
In 1934, Mussolini declared that the employment of women was a major aspect of the unemployment problem, and that working was incompatible with childbearing. He proposed the exodus of women from the workforce as a solution to unemployment for men.
1934: Mussolini declares fascism a universal phenomenon
In early 1934, Mussolini declared that fascism had become a universal phenomenon since 1929. He stated that the dominant forces of the 19th century, such as democracy, socialism, and liberalism, were exhausted, and that the new political and economic forms of the twentieth-century were fascist.
1934: IRI reports holding 48.5% of Italy's share capital
In early 1934, the IRI reported that they held assets of "48.5 percent of the share capital of Italy", which later included the capital of the banks themselves, following the government's takeover of most of Italy's largest failing banks due to the worldwide depression.
1934: Italian Fascism celebrates Hitler's rise to power
Italian fascism celebrated Hitler's rise to power and Mussolini's first meeting with Hitler in 1934.
1935: Walter Benjamin identifies aestheticization of politics
In "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" published in 1935, Walter Benjamin identified aestheticization of politics as a key ingredient in fascist regimes.
1935: Italy invades Ethiopia
In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia, resulting in condemnation by the League of Nations and widespread diplomatic isolation.
1935: Nazi Germany expands legality of abortion
In 1935, Nazi Germany expanded the legality of abortion by amending its eugenics law to promote abortion for women with hereditary disorders, if the woman gave her permission and the fetus was not yet viable. This was done for purposes of so-called racial hygiene.
1935: Height of the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands was at its height in the 1930s due to the Great Depression, especially in 1935 when it won almost eight percent of votes.
1936: Germany remilitarized Rhineland
In 1936, Germany remilitarized the industrial Rhineland, a region that had been ordered demilitarized by the Treaty of Versailles.
1937: Crackdown on Brazilian Integralists
In 1937, the Brazilian Integralists faced a crackdown from the Estado Novo of Getúlio Vargas following coup attempts.
1937: IRI made a permanent institution
In 1937, the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) was made a permanent institution in Fascist Italy to pursue fascist policies to create national autarky and take over private firms to maximize war production.
1937: Decline of the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the National Socialist Movement declined in 1937.
1938: James on Garvey's Actions
In 1938, C. L. R. James wrote "all the things that Hitler was to do so well later, Marcus Garvey was doing in 1920 and 1921".
1938: Germany annexed Austria, Italy assist Germany in resolving the diplomatic crisis with Britain and France
In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and Italy assisted Germany in resolving the diplomatic crisis between Germany versus Britain and France over claims on Czechoslovakia by arranging the Munich Agreement that gave Germany the Sudetenland and was perceived at the time to have averted a European war.
1938: Mussolini declares Italian fascism had always been antisemitic
In 1938, Mussolini declared upon Italy's adoption of antisemitic laws that Italian fascism had always been antisemitic. However, Italian fascism did not endorse antisemitism until the late 1930s when Mussolini feared alienating antisemitic Nazi Germany, whose power and influence were growing in Europe.
1938: Seguro Obrero massacre in Chile
In 1938, a coup d'état attempt by the National Socialist Movement of Chile resulted in the Seguro Obrero massacre.
1938: Italy stops import of Hollywood films
In 1938, the Mussolini regime stopped the import of Hollywood films in Italy, subsidized domestic production, and kept ticket prices low. It encouraged international distribution to glorify its African empire and to belie the charge that Italy was backward.
1939: Perón admired Italian Fascism
Between 1939 and 1941, prior to his rise to power, Perón had developed a deep admiration of Italian Fascism and modelled his economic policies on Italian fascist policies.
1939: Over 17 million Germans receive assistance from the NSV
By 1939, over 17 million Germans had obtained assistance from the National Socialist People's Welfare (NSV). The agency projected an image of caring and support for those judged to have difficulties through no fault of their own, but it was feared and disliked among society's poorest due to intrusive monitoring of who was worthy of support. Assistance was explicitly provided on racial grounds.
1941: Perón admired Italian Fascism
Between 1939 and 1941, prior to his rise to power, Perón had developed a deep admiration of Italian Fascism and modelled his economic policies on Italian fascist policies.
1942: Emergence of neo-fascist ideology
According to Jean-Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg, the neo-fascist ideology emerged in 1942, after Nazi Germany invaded the USSR and decided to reorient its propaganda on a Europeanist ground.
1943: Mussolini removed as head of government
In 1943, after Italy faced multiple military failures, the complete reliance and subordination of Italy to Germany, the Allied invasion of Italy and the corresponding international humiliation, Mussolini was removed as head of government and arrested on the order of King Victor Emmanuel III.
1944: Orwell's Observation on the Term 'Fascism'
In 1944, George Orwell noted that the term "fascist" had been used to denigrate diverse positions "in internal politics", and that while fascism is "a political and economic system" that was inconvenient to define, "as used, the word 'Fascism' is almost entirely meaningless."
April 1945: Mussolini captured and executed
On 28 April 1945, Mussolini was captured and executed by Italian communist partisans. On 30 April 1945, Hitler committed suicide.
November 1945: Nuremberg Trials begin
Beginning in November 1945, the International Military Tribunal convened in Nuremberg, lasting through 1949, to try numerous Nazi political, military, and economic leaders for war crimes.
1945: Mussolini leads the Italian Social Republic
After being rescued by German forces, Mussolini led the German client state, the Italian Social Republic, from 1943 to 1945. Nazi Germany faced multiple losses and steady Soviet and Western Allied offensives from 1943 to 1945.
1945: End of World War II
In 1945, with the end of World War II, fascism became largely disgraced, leading to few parties openly identifying as fascist. The term "fascist" is often used pejoratively by political opponents, while "neo-fascist" or "post-fascist" are applied to contemporary parties with similar ideologies to 20th-century fascist movements.
1946: Orwell's Perspective on Fascism
In 1946, George Orwell wrote that "'Fascism' has now no meaning except in so far as it signifies something not desirable."
1946: Peronism associated with the regime of Juan Perón
In Argentina, Peronism, associated with the regime of Juan Perón from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974, was influenced by fascism.
1949: End of Nuremberg Trials
The International Military Tribunal convened in Nuremberg, lasting through 1949, concluded, with numerous Nazi political, military, and economic leaders were tried and convicted of war crimes.
1955: Peronism associated with the regime of Juan Perón
In Argentina, Peronism, associated with the regime of Juan Perón from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974, was influenced by fascism.
1973: Peronism associated with the regime of Juan Perón
In Argentina, Peronism, associated with the regime of Juan Perón from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974, was influenced by fascism.
1974: Rachele Mussolini's book
In 1974, Mussolini's widow Rachele stated in her book that her husband had always been an atheist until near the end of his life.
1974: Peronism associated with the regime of Juan Perón
In Argentina, Peronism, associated with the regime of Juan Perón from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974, was influenced by fascism.
1981: Baudrillard interprets fascism as a political aesthetic of death
In 1981, Jean Baudrillard interprets fascism as a "political aesthetic of death" and a vehement countermovement against the increasing rationalism, secularism, and pacifism of the modern Western world, in his book Simulacra and Simulation.
2000: Griffiths on the Misuse of 'Fascism'
In 2000, Richard Griffiths of the University of Wales wrote that "fascism" is the "most misused, and over-used word, of our times".
2003: Historian Adrian Lyttelton's publication on Fascism expansion
In 2003, historian Adrian Lyttelton wrote about the expansion of Fascism in rural areas, stimulated and directed by the reaction of farmers and landowners against the peasant leagues of Socialists and Catholics.
2008: AN joined Forza Italia in Berlusconi's new party
In 2008, AN joined Forza Italia in Berlusconi's new party The People of Freedom.
2012: Politicians split from The People of Freedom, refounding the party with the name Brothers of Italy
In 2012 a group of politicians split from The People of Freedom, refounding the party with the name Brothers of Italy.
2013: Arrest of Golden Dawn's Leader
In 2013, after the murder of an anti-fascist musician by a person with links to Golden Dawn, the Greek government ordered the arrest of Golden Dawn's leader Nikolaos Michaloliakos and other members on charges related to being associated with a criminal organization.
2016: Increase in prominence of antifascism after election of Donald Trump
In the 21st century, antifascism greatly increased in prominence as a response to the resurgence of the radical right, especially after the 2016 election of Donald Trump.
2017: Unite the Right rally
In 2017, the Unite the Right rally, saw marchers come together from a variety of far-right groups and movements, including members of the alt-right, neo-Confederates, neo-fascists, white nationalists, neo-Nazis, Klansmen, and far-right militias.
2018: Publication of "How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them"
In 2018, Jason Stanley defined fascism in his book "How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them".
October 2020: Athens Appeals Court announced verdicts for Golden Dawn defendants
On 7 October 2020, Athens Appeals Court announced verdicts for 68 defendants, including the party's political leadership. Nikolaos Michaloliakos and six other prominent members and former members of parliament (MPs) were found guilty of running a criminal organization. Guilty verdicts were delivered on charges of murder, attempted murder, and violent attacks on immigrants and left-wing political opponents.
2020: Stanley's Concerns Substantiated by Global Events
As of 2020, recent global events, including the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 United States racial unrest, have substantiated Jason Stanley's concerns about how fascist rhetoric is showing up in politics and policies around the world.
2020: Publication of article exploring link between socialism and Mussolini's rise
In 2020, an article by Daron Acemoğlu, Giuseppe De Feo, Giacomo De Luca, and Gianluca Russo was published by the Center for Economic and Policy Research, exploring the link between the threat of socialism and Mussolini's rise to power.
2022: Stanley's Concerns Substantiated by Global Events
As of 2022, recent global events, including the 2022 United States racial unrest, have substantiated Jason Stanley's concerns about how fascist rhetoric is showing up in politics and policies around the world.
2023: Oleg Orlov claimed that Russia under Vladimir Putin had descended into fascism
In 2023, Oleg Orlov, the chairman of the Board of Human Rights Center "Memorial", claimed that Russia under Vladimir Putin had descended into fascism and that the army is committing "mass murder".
March 2024: Joe Biden compared Russia under Vladimir Putin to Adolf Hitler's conquests of Europe
On 7 March 2024, in his 2024 State of the Union Address, American President Joe Biden compared Russia under Vladimir Putin to Adolf Hitler's conquests of Europe.
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