History of Fascism in Timeline
Fascism is an authoritarian ultranationalist political ideology characterized by dictatorial leadership, centralized control, militarism, and suppression of opposition. It emphasizes the subordination of individual interests to the perceived good of the nation or race, promoting a rigid social hierarchy and state control over the economy. Fascism opposes ideologies such as Marxism, democracy, liberalism and communism, positioning itself on the far-right of the political spectrum. It often involves strong regimentation of society and a belief in national or racial superiority.
1902: Mussolini studies Georges Sorel, Nietzsche and Vilfredo Pareto
By 1902, Mussolini was studying Georges Sorel, Nietzsche and Vilfredo Pareto. Sorel's emphasis on the need for overthrowing decadent liberal democracy and capitalism by the use of violence, direct action, general strikes and neo-Machiavellian appeals to emotion impressed Mussolini deeply.
1908: Marinetti founded the Manifesto of Futurism
In 1908, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti founded the Manifesto of Futurism.
1908: Sorel promoted political violence
In 1908, French revolutionary syndicalist Georges Sorel promoted the legitimacy of political violence in his work Reflections on Violence.
1908: Philosophy of Strength
In 1908, Mussolini wrote a short essay called "Philosophy of Strength" based on his Nietzschean influence, in which Mussolini openly spoke fondly of the ramifications of an impending war in Europe in challenging both religion and nihilism.
1909: Sorel and supporters left the radical left
By 1909, after the failure of a syndicalist general strike in France, Georges Sorel and his supporters left the radical left and went to the radical right.
1910: Sorel abandoned socialist literature
By 1910, Georges Sorel announced his abandonment of socialist literature.
August 1914: Italian Political Left Split Over WWI
In August 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, the Italian political left became severely split over its position on the war.
October 1914: Olivetti Forms Pro-Interventionist Fascio
In October 1914, Angelo Oliviero Olivetti formed a pro-interventionist fascio called the Revolutionary Fasces of International Action.
1914: Brutalization of societies
Historian George Mosse analyzed fascism as a result of the brutalization of societies in 1914–1918.
1914: Sorel Claimed Socialism is Dead
In 1914, Georges Sorel claimed, using an aphorism of Benedetto Croce that "socialism is dead" because of the "decomposition of Marxism".
1914: Rise of National Socialism in Germany
In 1914, German sociologist Johann Plenge spoke of the rise of a "National Socialism" in Germany within what he termed the "ideas of 1914".
1914: Fasces Symbol Usage
Prior to 1914, the fasces symbol was widely employed by various political movements, often of a left-wing or liberal persuasion. Marianne, symbol of the French Republic, was often portrayed carrying the fasces.
January 1915: First Meeting of the Fasces of Revolutionary Action
On 24 January 1915, the first meeting of the Fasces of Revolutionary Action was held, during which Mussolini declared the necessity of resolving national problems in Europe.
1915: Founding of the Fasces of Revolutionary Action
In 1915, according to Benito Mussolini, the Fasces of Revolutionary Action were founded in Italy.
1915: First Use of the Term Fascism
In 1915, the term "fascism" was first used by members of Mussolini's movement, the Fasces of Revolutionary Action.
1917: Influence of the October Revolution
In 1917, the October Revolution, in which Bolshevik communists led by Vladimir Lenin seized power in Russia, greatly influenced the development of fascism.
1918: Brutalization of societies
Historian George Mosse analyzed fascism as a result of the brutalization of societies in 1914–1918.
1918: Mussolini Defines Proletarian Character
In 1918, Mussolini defined what he viewed as the proletarian character, associating all productive people, including entrepreneurs, technicians, workers, and soldiers, as proletarian.
June 1919: Presentation of the Fascist Manifesto
On June 6, 1919, the Fascist Manifesto, created by Alceste De Ambris and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, was presented in the fascist newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia. The manifesto advocated for universal suffrage, proportional representation, government representation through corporatist National Councils, and the abolition of the Senate of the Kingdom of Italy.
1919: Mussolini founded the Italian Fasces of Combat
In 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the Italian Fasces of Combat in Milan, which later became the National Fascist Party.
1919: Fascist Manifesto
In 1919, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti co-authored the Fascist Manifesto where he aestheticizes war claiming that "war is beautiful."
1919: Start of the "Red Year" (Biennio Rosso)
In 1919, Italy entered a period of intense militant strike activity by industrial workers, a time known as the "Red Year" (Biennio Rosso). This unrest created an environment that Mussolini and the fascists would later exploit by allying with businesses and suppressing workers.
1919: Mussolini Consolidates Control
In 1919, Mussolini consolidated control over the fascist movement, known as Sansepolcrismo, with the founding of the Italian Fasces of Combat.
1919: Mussolini declared that the Jewish bankers in London and New York were connected by race to the Russian Bolsheviks
In 1919, Mussolini declared that the Jewish bankers in London and New York were connected by race to the Russian Bolsheviks and that eight percent of the Russian Bolsheviks were Jews.
1920: Raid of Fiume and Founding of the Charter of Carnaro
In 1920, Italian nationalist Gabriele d'Annunzio's raid of Fiume and the founding of the Charter of Carnaro influenced the fascists in Italy. The Charter of Carnaro, designed by D'Annunzio and De Ambris, advocated national-syndicalist corporatist productionism alongside D'Annunzio's political views. Many fascists considered the Charter of Carnaro as an ideal constitution for a fascist Italy.
1920: Garvey's actions
In 1920, according to C. L. R. James "all the things that Hitler was to do so well later, Marcus Garvey was doing in 1920 and 1921".
1920: Peak of Militant Strike Activity in Italy
In 1920, militant strike activity by industrial workers reached its peak in Italy, a period known as the "Red Year" (Biennio Rosso). Mussolini and the fascists exploited this situation by allying with industrial businesses and attacking workers and peasants, claiming to preserve order and internal peace in Italy.
1920: Organization against fascism began
Organization against fascism began around 1920.
1921: Soaring Membership of the Fascist Movement
By 1921, after accommodating the political right, the Italian fascist movement's membership soared to approximately 250,000. This growth followed the abandonment of previous populist, republican, and anticlerical stances, and the adoption of policies supporting free enterprise and the Catholic Church and the monarchy.
1921: Garvey's actions
In 1921, according to C. L. R. James "all the things that Hitler was to do so well later, Marcus Garvey was doing in 1920 and 1921".
October 1922: Fascist Party Congress in Naples and Plans for Rome
On October 24, 1922, the Fascist Party held its annual congress in Naples, where Mussolini ordered Blackshirts to seize public buildings and trains and converge on three points around Rome. Despite seizing control of some areas, the Italian government's division and King Victor Emmanuel III's fear of bloodshed led to Mussolini's appointment as Prime Minister on October 30.
1922: Escalation of Fascist Paramilitary Tactics
Beginning in 1922, fascist paramilitaries in Italy escalated their strategy from attacking socialist offices and homes to the violent occupation of cities. Meeting little resistance from authorities, the fascists took over several northern Italian cities, including Cremona and Bolzano, and planned to seize Rome.
1922: Fascism became the state ideology of Italy
Fascism became the state ideology of Italy in 1922.
November 1923: Failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich
In November 1923, the Nazis, led by Hitler and Erich Ludendorff, attempted a "March on Berlin" modeled upon the March on Rome. This resulted in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich.
January 1925: Mussolini's Declaration of Responsibility and Dictatorship
On January 3, 1925, Mussolini addressed the Fascist-dominated Italian parliament and declared he was personally responsible for the murder of Giacomo Matteotti, but insisted he had done nothing wrong. He proclaimed himself dictator of Italy, assuming full governmental control and dismissing parliament.
December 1925: Decree Making Mussolini Solely Responsible to the King
In December 1925, a decree was issued which made Mussolini solely responsible to the King of Italy, further consolidating his power and diminishing parliamentary authority.
1925: Creation of the Corporatist Economic System
In 1925, the fascist regime in Italy established a corporatist economic system with the Palazzo Vidoni Pact, where Confindustria and fascist trade unions recognized each other as the sole representatives of employers and employees, excluding non-fascist unions.
1926: Banning of Birth Control and Increased Penalties for Abortion
In 1926, the fascists in Italy banned literature on birth control and increased penalties for abortion, declaring both to be crimes against the state, as part of their effort to promote family values and limit women's roles to that of a mother.
1927: Creation of the Charter of Labour
In 1927, the Fascist regime in Italy created the Charter of Labour, establishing workers' rights and duties and creating labor tribunals to arbitrate employer-employee disputes. This was part of their corporatist economic system.
1929: Consolidation of Fascist Power
From 1925 to 1929, fascism steadily became entrenched in power in Italy, marked by the denial of access to parliament for opposition deputies, the introduction of censorship, and the decree making Mussolini solely responsible to the King.
1929: Signing of the Lateran Treaty with the Catholic Church
In 1929, the fascist regime in Italy and the Catholic Church signed the Lateran Treaty. The treaty granted the papacy state sovereignty and financial compensation for seized Church lands. However, within two years, the Church renounced fascism in the Encyclical Non Abbiamo Bisogno.
1929: Onset of the Great Depression
Since 1929, the Depression was a crisis of laissez-faire capitalism and parliamentary democracy. Fascism could pose as the 'third-way' alternative between capitalism and Bolshevism, the model of a new European 'civilization.'
1930: Trotsky's Theory of Fascism
From 1930 to 1933, Leon Trotsky would formulate a theory of fascism based on a dialectical interpretation of events to analyze the manifestation of Italian fascism and the early emergence of Nazi Germany.
1931: Rise of the Revolutionary Union in Peru
In 1931, the fascist Revolutionary Union came to power in Peru, remaining in power until 1933.
1932: Rise of Gyula Gömbös in Hungary
In 1932, Hungarian fascist Gyula Gömbös rose to power as Prime Minister of Hungary. He attempted to entrench his Party of National Unity throughout the country, instituting policies such as an eight-hour workday and pursuing irredentist claims.
1932: Publication of The Doctrine of Fascism
In 1932, Mussolini's "The Doctrine of Fascism", partly ghostwritten by Giovanni Gentile, was published, stating that the Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing and totalitarian.
1933: Growth of the Iron Guard Movement in Romania
After 1933, the fascist Iron Guard movement in Romania soared in political support. They gained representation in the Romanian government, and an Iron Guard member assassinated Romanian prime minister Ion Duca.
1933: Fascism became the state ideology of Germany
Fascism became the state ideology of Germany in 1933, spurring a large increase in anti-fascist action, including German resistance to Nazism and the Italian resistance movement.
1933: Trotsky's Theory of Fascism
From 1930 to 1933, Leon Trotsky would formulate a theory of fascism based on a dialectical interpretation of events to analyze the manifestation of Italian fascism and the early emergence of Nazi Germany.
1933: Rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party to Power in Germany
In 1933, Hitler and the Nazis rose to power in Germany, leading to the demise of the Weimar Republic and the establishment of Nazi Germany. This rise resulted in the dissolution of liberal democracy, mobilization for war, and the implementation of racial laws discriminating against Jews and other minority groups.
1933: End of Revolutionary Union's Rule in Peru
In 1933, the Revolutionary Union's period in power in Peru came to an end.
February 1934: February 6 Crisis in France
During the 6 February 1934 crisis, France faced major political turmoil when the fascist Francist Movement and other far-right groups rioted in Paris against the French government, resulting in political violence.
July 1934: Salazar Abolishes National Syndicalists
In July 1934, Salazar abolished the National Syndicalists, the closest thing Portugal had to an authentic fascist movement. He preferred to control his population through institutions like the Church.
1934: Support for Hitler's rise to power
In 1934, Fascist Italy celebrated Hitler's rise to power and Mussolini's first meeting with Hitler.
1934: Mussolini on women and employment
In 1934, Mussolini stated that the employment of women was a major aspect of the unemployment problem, arguing that working was incompatible with childbearing and that the solution to unemployment for men was the exodus of women from the work force.
1934: Fascism Becomes a Universal Phenomenon
In early 1934, Mussolini stated that 'from 1929 ... fascism has become a universal phenomenon ... The dominant forces of the 19th century, democracy, socialism, [and] liberalism have been exhausted ... the new political and economic forms of the twentieth-century are fascist'.
1934: IRI Reports on Italian Economy
In early 1934, the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) reported that they held assets of "48.5 percent of the share capital of Italy", which later included the capital of the banks themselves. This state intervention and ownership in Italy surpassed that in Nazi Germany.
1935: Italy Invades Ethiopia
In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia, resulting in its condemnation by the League of Nations and widespread diplomatic isolation.
1935: Expansion of Abortion Legality in Nazi Germany
In 1935, Nazi Germany expanded the legality of abortion by amending its eugenics law to promote abortion for women with hereditary disorders. The law allowed abortion with a woman's permission if the fetus was not yet viable and for purposes of so-called racial hygiene.
1935: Walter Benjamin identifies aestheticization of politics as a key ingredient in fascist regimes
In 1935, Walter Benjamin, in *The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction*, identifies the aestheticization of politics as a key ingredient in fascist regimes. He quotes Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, co-author of the Fascist Manifesto, who aestheticizes war.
1935: Peak Support for the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands
In 1935, the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands reached its height, winning almost eight percent of votes during the Great Depression.
1936: Germany Remilitarizes the Rhineland
In 1936, Germany remilitarized the industrial Rhineland, violating the Treaty of Versailles.
1937: Decline of the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands
By 1937, the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands experienced a decline after its peak support in 1935.
1937: Crackdown on Brazilian Integralists
In 1937, the Brazilian Integralists, who claimed as many as 200,000 members, faced a crackdown from the Estado Novo of Getúlio Vargas following coup attempts.
1937: IRI Made Permanent
In 1937, the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) was made a permanent institution in Fascist Italy. It pursued fascist policies to create national autarky and had the power to take over private firms to maximize war production.
1938: James on Garvey's actions
In 1938, C. L. R. James wrote "all the things that Hitler was to do so well later, Marcus Garvey was doing in 1920 and 1921".
1938: Italian cinema flourished
In 1938, the Mussolini regime stopped the import of Hollywood films. Italian cinema flourished because the regime subsidized domestic production, and kept ticket prices low.
1938: Seguro Obrero Massacre in Chile
In 1938, the National Socialist Movement of Chile attempted a coup d'état, which resulted in the Seguro Obrero massacre.
1939: Perón admires Italian Fascism
Between 1939 and 1941, prior to his rise to power, Perón had developed a deep admiration of Italian Fascism and modelled his economic policies on Italian fascist policies.
1939: Assistance from the National Socialist People's Welfare
In 1939, over 17 million Germans obtained assistance from the National Socialist People's Welfare (NSV). This agency projected a powerful image of caring and support for those who were judged to have got into difficulties through no fault of their own. However, the NSV was feared and disliked among society's poorest because it resorted to intrusive questioning and monitoring to judge who was worthy of support.
1941: Perón admires Italian Fascism
Between 1939 and 1941, prior to his rise to power, Perón had developed a deep admiration of Italian Fascism and modelled his economic policies on Italian fascist policies.
1943: Mussolini Removed from Power
In 1943, after multiple military failures and the Allied invasion of Italy, Mussolini was removed as head of government and arrested on the order of King Victor Emmanuel III.
1944: Orwell on the misuse of the term Fascism
In 1944, George Orwell noted that the term 'fascist' had been used to denigrate diverse positions in internal politics, saying that it was almost entirely meaningless and synonymous with 'bully'.
April 1945: Mussolini's Capture and Execution
On 28 April 1945, Mussolini was captured and executed by Italian communist partisans.
November 1945: Nuremberg Trials Begin
Beginning in November 1945 and lasting through 1949, an International Military Tribunal convened in Nuremberg to try Nazi political, military, and economic leaders for war crimes.
1945: Mussolini Leads Italian Social Republic
From 1943 to 1945, after being rescued by German forces, Mussolini led the German client state, the Italian Social Republic. Nazi Germany faced multiple losses and steady Soviet and Western Allied offensives from 1943 to 1945.
1945: End of World War II
In 1945, with the end of World War II, fascism became largely disgraced, and few parties openly described themselves as fascist.
1946: Orwell's Definition of Fascism
In 1946, George Orwell wrote that "'Fascism' has now no meaning except in so far as it signifies something not desirable."
1946: Start of Juan Perón's Regime
In 1946, Juan Perón's regime began in Argentina and lasted until 1955 and again from 1973 to 1974. Peronism was influenced by fascism.
1949: Conclusion of Nuremberg Trials
The International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg concluded in 1949 after trying numerous Nazi political, military, and economic leaders for war crimes, with many of the worst offenders sentenced to death and executed.
1955: End of Juan Perón's First Regime
In 1955, the first period of Juan Perón's regime ended in Argentina. Peronism, associated with his rule from 1946 to 1955 and again from 1973 to 1974, was influenced by fascism.
1973: Return of Juan Perón's Regime
In 1973, Juan Perón's regime returned to power in Argentina, lasting until 1974. Peronism, influenced by fascism, was associated with his rule from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974.
1974: End of Juan Perón's Second Regime
In 1974, the second period of Juan Perón's regime ended in Argentina. Peronism, associated with his rule from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974, was influenced by fascism.
1974: Publication of Mussolini's Widow's Account of His Religious Beliefs
In her 1974 book, Mussolini's widow Rachele stated that her husband had always been an atheist until near the end of his life, providing insights into his evolving views on religion.
1975: Death of Franco
In 1975, Francisco Franco died, leading to the transformation of Spain into a liberal democracy.
1981: Baudrillard interprets fascism
In 1981, Jean Baudrillard interprets fascism as a political aesthetic of death and a vehement countermovement against the increasing rationalism, secularism, and pacifism of the modern Western world in Simulacra and Simulation.
2000: Griffiths on Fascism as a Misused Term
In 2000, Richard Griffiths of the University of Wales wrote that "fascism" is the "most misused, and over-used word, of our times".
2003: Lyttelton's Analysis of Fascist Expansion in Rural Areas
In 2003, historian Adrian Lyttelton wrote that the expansion of Fascism in the rural areas was stimulated and directed by the reaction of farmers and landowners against the peasant leagues of both Socialists and Catholics, contributing to a better understanding of the movement's growth.
2008: National Alliance Joins Forza Italia
In 2008, the National Alliance (AN) joined Forza Italia in Silvio Berlusconi's new party, The People of Freedom.
2012: Brothers of Italy Refounded
In 2012, a group of politicians split from The People of Freedom, refounding the party with the name Brothers of Italy.
2013: Arrest of Golden Dawn Leaders
In 2013, after the murder of an anti-fascist musician, the Greek government ordered the arrest of Golden Dawn's leader Nikolaos Michaloliakos and other members on charges related to being associated with a criminal organization.
2018: Publication of 'How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them'
In 2018, Jason Stanley defined fascism in his book 'How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them'.
October 2020: Guilty Verdicts for Golden Dawn Members
On 7 October 2020, the Athens Appeals Court announced guilty verdicts for 68 defendants, including Golden Dawn's political leadership. Nikolaos Michaloliakos and six other members were found guilty of running a criminal organization, murder, attempted murder, and violent attacks on immigrants and left-wing political opponents.
2020: Stanley's Concerns Substantiated by Global Events
As of 2020, Jason Stanley stated that recent global events, including the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020–2022 United States racial unrest, have substantiated his concern about fascist rhetoric showing up in politics and policies around the world.
2020: Publication of Research on Socialism and Mussolini's Rise
In 2020, an article by Daron Acemoğlu, Giuseppe De Feo, Giacomo De Luca, and Gianluca Russo was published by the Center for Economic and Policy Research. It explored the link between the threat of socialism and Mussolini's rise to power, finding a strong association between the Red Scare in Italy and the subsequent local support for the Fascist Party in the early 1920s.
2022: Stanley's Concerns Substantiated by Global Events
As of 2022, Jason Stanley stated that recent global events, including the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020–2022 United States racial unrest, have substantiated his concern about fascist rhetoric showing up in politics and policies around the world.
2023: Orlov Claims Russia Descended into Fascism
In 2023, Oleg Orlov, chairman of the Board of Human Rights Center "Memorial", claimed that Russia under Vladimir Putin had descended into fascism.
March 2024: Biden Compares Putin to Hitler
On 7 March 2024, in his 2024 State of the Union Address, American President Joe Biden compared Russia under Vladimir Putin to Adolf Hitler's conquests of Europe.
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