Tsunamis are series of waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, typically in an ocean or large lake. Unlike regular waves generated by wind or tides influenced by the moon and sun's gravitational pull, tsunamis originate from events like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and underwater explosions that displace substantial amounts of water.
1917: Halifax Explosion Tsunami
In 1917, the Halifax Explosion triggered an 18-meter high tsunami in Halifax, Nova Scotia.
1929: 1929 Grand Banks tsunami
The 1929 Grand Banks tsunami was caused by an earthquake that destabilized sediments, triggering a tsunami.
1933: 1933 Sanriku Earthquake
The 1933 Sanriku earthquake is another example of a tsunami caused by movement on a normal fault.
1939: Project Seal
During World War II (1939-1945), Project Seal in New Zealand attempted to create artificial tsunamis using conventional explosives.
1945: Project Seal
Project Seal, in 1945, failed to artificially create tsunamis with conventional explosives in New Zealand.
April 1, 1946: 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake and tsunami
On April 1, 1946, an 8.6 Mw earthquake in the Aleutian Islands generated a tsunami that caused a 14-meter high surge in Hilo, Hawaii, resulting in 165-173 deaths.
July 1946: Operation Crossroads
In July 1946, the United States conducted Operation Crossroads, detonating two nuclear bombs at Bikini Atoll, but this did not generate significant tsunami waves.
1958: 1958 Lituya Bay Megatsunami
In 1958, a massive landslide in Lituya Bay, Alaska, generated the highest recorded wave in history, reaching 524 meters. This event confirmed the existence of tsunamis caused by giant submarine landslides.
1960: 1960 Valdivia earthquake
The 1960 Valdivia earthquake (Mw 9.5) is an example of a powerful megathrust earthquake that generated a transoceanic tsunami.
1962: Sieberg-Ambraseys Scale
The Sieberg-Ambraseys scale, the first scale for measuring tsunami intensity, was introduced in 1962.
1963: 1963 Vajont Dam Megatsunami
In 1963, a landslide from Monte Toc into the Vajont Dam reservoir in Italy caused a megatsunami that overtopped the dam, resulting in around 2,000 deaths.
1963: Imamura-Iida intensity scale
The Imamura-Iida intensity scale for measuring tsunami intensity was introduced in 1963.
1964: 1964 Alaska earthquake
The 1964 Alaska earthquake (Mw 9.2) is another example of a megathrust earthquake causing a transoceanic tsunami.
1969: "Forty Feet High and It Kills!"
In 1969, an episode of Hawaii Five-O titled "Forty Feet High and It Kills!" used the terms tsunami and tidal wave interchangeably.
1972: Soloviev's Tsunami Intensity Formula
In 1972, Soloviev modified the Imamura-Iida intensity scale and calculated tsunami intensity using a specific formula.
1977: 1977 Sumba Earthquake
The 1977 Sumba earthquake is an example of a tsunami caused by movement on a normal fault.
March 1979: Meteotsunami at Nagasaki
In March 1979, a meteotsunami, a tsunami caused by meteorological conditions, struck Nagasaki, Japan.
July 12, 1993: Okushiri, Hokkaidō Tsunami
On July 12, 1993, the Okushiri, Hokkaidō tsunami generated waves as high as 30 meters, demonstrating that even tsunami walls cannot fully prevent destruction and loss of life.
1998: 1998 Papua New Guinea tsunami
The 1998 Papua New Guinea tsunami, similar to the 1929 Grand Banks event, resulted from an earthquake-triggered underwater landslide.
2001: Tappin's Research
In 2001, Tappin published research on tsunamis originating away from convergent boundaries, including the 1929 Grand Banks and 1998 Papua New Guinea events.
2004: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, which occurred in 2004, was one of the deadliest natural disasters in history. It resulted in at least 230,000 fatalities across 14 countries.
2004: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
The devastating 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami killed approximately 230,000 people, making it the most destructive tsunami in modern times.
2004: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
The devastating 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami led to intensive studies and further developments in tsunami intensity scales.
2004: Animal Behavior and Tsunami Prediction
The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami sparked discussion about whether animals can sense tsunamis before they strike, with anecdotal reports of animals fleeing to higher ground in Sri Lanka.
2004: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake (Mw 9.2) is another example of a megathrust earthquake that generated a transoceanic tsunami.
2004: Tilly Smith's Tsunami Warning
In 2004, ten-year-old Tilly Smith used her knowledge of tsunamis to warn her family and others in Phuket, Thailand, saving lives during the Indian Ocean tsunami.
2004: Indian Ocean Tsunami Drawback
During the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the drawback phenomenon, where water recedes from the shore before the wave hits, was observed on the western side of the megathrust but not on the eastern side, including the African coast.
June 2006: Meteotsunami at Menorca
In June 2006, a destructive meteotsunami occurred in Menorca, causing tens of millions of euros in damage.
2011: Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster
In 2011, the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami caused the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster after waves overwhelmed the plant's seawalls, leading to catastrophic damage and highlighting limitations of existing tsunami barriers.
2011: 2011 Tōhoku Tsunami
In 2011, the Tōhoku tsunami, along with the 2004 tsunami, led to research and a proposal for a new tsunami intensity scale.
2011: 2011 Tōhoku earthquake
The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake (Mw 9.0) is another recent example of a megathrust earthquake generating a transoceanic tsunami.
2012: Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scale (ITIS-2012)
The Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scale (ITIS-2012) was proposed in 2012 following the study of tsunamis in 2004 and 2011.
2013: Proposal of ITIS-2012
A new 12-point scale for tsunami intensity, the Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scale (ITIS-2012) was proposed in 2013.
2018: 2018 Anak Krakatoa eruption and tsunami
The eruption and collapse of Anak Krakatoa in 2018, which generated a tsunami that killed 426 people and injured thousands, highlighted the need for improved tsunami forecasting and risk assessment.
2022: 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption and tsunami
The 2022 eruption of the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai volcano generated a tsunami, adding to the list of volcanogenic tsunamis.