History of Vietnam War in Timeline
The Vietnam War was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia between North Vietnam (supported by the Soviet Union and China) and South Vietnam (supported by the United States and anti-communist nations). It was a proxy war of the Cold War. US military involvement escalated from 1965 and ended in 1973. The conflict extended into the Laotian and Cambodian Civil Wars. In 1975, all three countries became communist.
1930: Founding of the Indochinese Communist Party
In 1930, Nguyen Sinh Cung established the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), aiming to overthrow French rule and establish a communist state.
1941: Japan Gains Full Military Access
By 1941, Japan had gained full military access across Indochina and established a dual colonial rule that preserved Vichy French administration while facilitating Japanese military operations.
1944: US Support for Viet Minh
From 1944, the US Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) provided the Viet Minh with weapons and training to fight the occupying Japanese.
August 1945: Viet Minh Consolidation of Power
Beginning in August 1945, the Viet Minh sought to consolidate power by terrorizing and purging rival Vietnamese nationalist groups and Trotskyist activists.
1945: Vietnamese Government Deaths and Missing
According to Vietnamese government figures, from 1945 to 1979, there were an estimated 1.1 million dead and 300,000 missing.
December 1946: Outbreak of War between Viet Minh and French Authorities
In December 1946, tensions between the Viet Minh and French authorities erupted into full-scale war, a conflict that would later become entangled with the Cold War.
1946: First Indochina War Began
In 1946, the First Indochina War began with the defeat of the French Union.
1946: Franco-Chinese and Ho-Sainteny Agreements
In 1946, the Franco-Chinese and Ho–Sainteny Agreements facilitated a coexistence between the DRV and French that strengthened the Viet Minh while undermining the nationalists. That summer, the Viet Minh colluded with French forces to eliminate nationalists, targeted for their ardent anti-colonialism.
March 1947: Truman Doctrine Announced
In March 1947, President Harry S. Truman announced the anticommunist Truman Doctrine, pledging United States support to nations resisting "attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures".
February 1950: US Recognizes State of Vietnam
In February 1950, after communist China and the Soviet Union recognized the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the US recognized the French-backed State of Vietnam, based in Saigon, as the legitimate government.
July 1950: Chinese Military Advisors Assist Viet Minh
In July 1950, Military advisors from China began assisting the Viet Minh.
September 1950: US Creates Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG)
In September 1950, the US created the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) to screen French aid requests, advise on strategy, and train Vietnamese soldiers.
1953: Agrarian Reforms Instituted
In 1953, the Northern government of Vietnam initiated agrarian reforms, encompassing rent reduction and land reform, which led to political oppression.
May 1954: French Surrender at Dien Bien Phu
In May 1954, the French garrison at Dien Bien Phu surrendered, marking the end of French military involvement in Indochina. At the Geneva Conference, they negotiated a ceasefire with the Viet Minh, and the independence of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam was affirmed, with Vietnam placed under a temporary North–South division.
1954: Geneva Conference Partitions Vietnam
At the 1954 Geneva Conference, Vietnam was temporarily partitioned at the 17th parallel.
1954: Diệm Government Prevents Large-Scale Unrest
Between 1954 and 1957, the Diệm government succeeded in preventing large-scale unrest in the countryside.
1954: US Support for French War Effort
By 1954, the US had spent $1 billion in support of the French effort, shouldering 80% of the war costs.
1954: Battle of Dien Bien Phu and US Considerations
During the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, US carriers sailed to the Gulf of Tonkin, the US conducted reconnaissance flights, and France and the US discussed the use of tactical nuclear weapons.
1954: Eisenhower on Self-Determination
In 1954, President Eisenhower expressed the US's traditional position that peoples are entitled to determine their own future, during discussions regarding the division of Vietnam.
1954: Start of South Vietnamese Military Deaths
In 1954, additional deaths of the South Vietnamese military occurred, with further deaths until 1959.
1954: Vietnam Divided at Geneva Conference
In 1954, after the defeat of the French Union, Vietnam was divided into two at the 17th parallel at the Geneva Conference.
June 1955: Diệm Eliminates Political Opposition
In June 1955, Ngô Đình Diệm's government launched operations to eliminate political opposition in South Vietnam, targeting religious groups such as the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo.
October 1955: Referendum and Declaration of Republic of Vietnam
In October 1955, Ngô Đình Diệm rigged a referendum, claiming 98% of the vote, and declared South Vietnam as the Republic of Vietnam with himself as president.
1955: Vietnamese Government Military Deaths
According to Vietnamese government figures, starting in 1955, there were 849,018 confirmed military deaths on the PAVN/VC side from 1955–75, including battle deaths of Vietnamese soldiers in the Laotian and Cambodian Civil Wars.
1955: Launch of "Denounce the Communists" Campaign
In 1955, Diệm launched the "Denounce the Communists" campaign, leading to imprisonment, torture, and execution of suspected communists and anti-government elements.
1955: Neutrality Declaration
In 1955, Prince Norodom Sihanouk proclaimed Cambodia neutral, but permitted the PAVN/VC to use the port of Sihanoukville and Sihanouk Trail.
March 1956: "The Road to the South" Plan
In March 1956, southern communist leader Lê Duẩn presented the plan to revive the insurgency titled "The Road to the South" to the Politburo in Hanoi. The plan was ultimately rejected.
October 1956: Diệm Launches Land Reform Program
In October 1956, Diệm initiated a land reform program, limiting the size of rice farms per owner and making land available for purchase by landless people.
1956: Diệm More Popular Than Bảo Đại
According to the Pentagon Papers, by 1956, Ngô Đình Diệm was purportedly a more popular candidate than Bảo Đại against Hồ Chí Minh in a potential election.
1956: Planned Elections and CIA Psychological Warfare
Elections were to be held in 1956 to establish a unified government. Allen Dulles, initiated a psychological warfare campaign which exaggerated anti-Catholic sentiment among the Viet Minh.
1956: Hanoi Leaders Admit to "Excesses"
In 1956, leaders in Hanoi acknowledged "excesses" during the land reform process and restored much of the land to its original owners.
April 1957: Insurgents Launch Assassination Campaign
In April 1957, insurgents initiated an assassination campaign in South Vietnam, targeting individuals considered "traitors".
May 1957: Diệm's State Visit to the US
In May 1957, Ngô Đình Diệm made a 10-day state visit to the US, during which President Eisenhower pledged continued support, despite private reservations about Diệm's leadership.
November 1957: Imprisonments and Killings
By November 1957, the North Vietnamese government claimed that over 65,000 people were imprisoned and 2,148 killed as a result of the "Denounce the Communists" campaign.
1957: ICC Reports Unfair Election Conditions
In 1957, independent observers from the International Control Commission (ICC) stated that fair elections were impossible, as neither South nor North Vietnam had honored the armistice agreement.
1957: Viet Cong Intensifies Guerrilla War
In 1957, the Viet Cong intensified a guerrilla war in South Vietnam, supplied and directed by North Vietnam.
May 1958: North Vietnamese Forces Seize Tchepone
In May 1958, North Vietnamese forces seized the transportation hub at Tchepone in Southern Laos, near the demilitarized zone between North and South Vietnam.
1958: North Vietnam Invades Laos
In 1958, North Vietnam invaded Laos, establishing the Ho Chi Minh trail to supply the Viet Cong.
January 1959: North Approves "People's War"
In January 1959, the North Vietnamese Communist Party approved a "people's war" on the South, escalating the conflict.
August 1959: First Arms Delivery Completed
In August 1959, the first arms delivery was completed via the upgraded Ho Chi Minh trail.
1959: Political Prisoners Jailed
By 1959, 40,000 political prisoners were jailed in South Vietnam as a result of the "Denounce the Communists" campaign.
1959: Law 10/59 Implemented
By early 1959, Diệm considered the violence an organized campaign and implemented Law 10/59, which made political violence punishable by death.
1959: Growth of the Viet Cong
From the start of 1959 the Viet Cong's ranks began to grow to about 100,000 by the end of 1964. They were outfitting the VC forces and standardizing their equipment with AK-47 rifles and other supplies, as well as forming the 9th Division.
1959: End of South Vietnamese Military Deaths
In 1959, additional deaths of the South Vietnamese military occurred from 1954-1959.
January 1960: Increased Violence Between Insurgents and Government Forces
In January 1960, violence between insurgents and government forces increased, marking a significant escalation in the conflict.
April 1960: North Vietnam Imposes Military Conscription
In April 1960, North Vietnam implemented military conscription for men, increasing their military capacity.
September 1960: COSVN Orders Coordinated Uprising
In September 1960, COSVN, North Vietnam's southern headquarters, ordered a coordinated uprising in South Vietnam, leading to communist control in a third of the population.
1960: Vietnamese Government Deaths and Missing
According to Vietnamese government figures, from 1960 to 1975, approximately 849,000 were dead and 232,000 missing.
1960: Land Reform Stalled
By 1960, Diệm's land reform program had stalled due to the fact that many of Diem's biggest supporters were large landowners.
1960: South Vietnamese Military Deaths
From 1960 to 1974, the military of South Vietnam suffered an estimated 254,000 killed.
1960: Increased US Involvement
In 1960, President John F. Kennedy increased US involvement from 900 military advisors.
1960: U.S. Presidential Election
In the 1960 U.S. presidential election, John F. Kennedy defeated Richard Nixon. Outgoing President Eisenhower warned Kennedy about Laos and Vietnam.
1961: Start of Chemical Defoliant Use
Between 1961 and 1971, the US began using chemical defoliants in Vietnam, spraying 20 million gallons of toxic herbicides, like Agent Orange, on 6 million acres of forests and crops.
1961: Increase in US Troop Numbers
In 1961, US troop numbers deployed in Vietnam were at 2,000, rising to 16,500 in 1964. Between 1961 and 1964 the Army's strength rose from about 850,000 to nearly a million men.
April 1962: Galbraith Warns Kennedy
In April 1962, John Kenneth Galbraith cautioned President Kennedy about the potential for the US to replace the French as a colonial power in Vietnam.
July 1962: International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos
In July 1962, 14 nations, including China, South Vietnam, the Soviet Union, North Vietnam, and the US, signed the International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos.
1962: Mao Zedong agrees to supply Hanoi with rifles and guns.
In the summer of 1962, Mao Zedong agreed to supply Hanoi with 90,000 rifles and guns free of charge.
January 1963: Battle of Ap Bac
In January 1963, the Battle of Ap Bac exemplified the ARVN's inept performance, with the VC winning against a larger and better-equipped South Vietnamese force.
May 1963: Huế Phật Đản Shootings
In May 1963, the Huế Phật Đản shootings, where 9 Buddhists were killed for protesting a ban on displaying the Buddhist flag, sparked mass protests against Diệm's discriminatory policies.
August 1963: Pagoda Raids
In August 1963, the ARVN Special Forces raided pagodas, causing destruction and hundreds of deaths, exacerbating the Buddhist crisis.
November 1963: Strategic Hamlet Program Wanes
By November 1963, the Strategic Hamlet Program had waned.
November 1963: Increased Military Assistance
By November 1963, the number of US advisors in Vietnam under President Kennedy had risen to 16,000.
November 1963: Lyndon B. Johnson Focuses on Vietnam
In November 1963, following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, newly appointed President Lyndon B. Johnson immediately focused on the deteriorating situation in Vietnam. On November 24, 1963 he declared the need to join the battle against communism with strength and determination, adhering to the domino theory.
November 1963: Diệm Overthrown and Executed
On 2 November 1963, Ngô Đình Diệm was overthrown and executed, along with his brother. Kennedy had not anticipated Diệm's murder. The U.S. ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge, invited coup leaders to the embassy and congratulated them. Lodge informed Kennedy that "the prospects now are for a shorter war". Kennedy wrote to Lodge congratulating him for "a fine job".
1963: Increased US Involvement and Coup in South Vietnam
In 1963, President Kennedy increased US involvement in Vietnam and Diem was killed in a US-backed military coup, which added to the south's instability.
1963: Increasing Support for Viet Cong
In 1963, following a coup in South Vietnam that led to political instability, Hanoi increased its support for the Viet Cong (VC). The US advisors in South Vietnam were criticized for ignoring the political nature of the insurgency, while the CIA warned that the Viet Cong retained de facto control of much of the countryside.
January 1964: Overthrow of Dương Văn Minh's Regime
In January 1964, General Nguyễn Khánh overthrew General Dương Văn Minh's regime in South Vietnam. Minh, the leader of the military revolutionary council, was described as lethargic. This coup contributed to the persistent instability in the South Vietnamese military.
August 1964: Gulf of Tonkin Incident and Resolution
In August 1964, the USS Maddox was reportedly attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin, and a second attack was reported on USS Turner Joy and Maddox two days later. These incidents led to retaliatory airstrikes and the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, granting President Johnson broad power to take all necessary measures against attacks and prevent further aggression.
December 1964: ARVN Losses at the Battle of Bình Giã
In December 1964, ARVN forces suffered losses at the Battle of Bình Giã, a battle viewed by both sides as a watershed moment. The VC defeated a strong ARVN force in a conventional battle and remained in the field for four days.
1964: Viet Cong Ranks Grow
By the end of 1964 the Viet Cong's ranks grew to about 100,000, from a strength of approximately 5,000 at the start of 1959. US troop numbers deployed were much lower: 2,000 in 1961, rising to 16,500 in 1964.
1964: Gulf of Tonkin Incident and Resolution
In 1964, following the Gulf of Tonkin incident, the US Congress passed a resolution that gave President Lyndon B. Johnson authority to increase military presence without declaring war.
1964: US Bombing in Laos Begins
In 1964, the US began aerial bombardment against the Pathet Lao and PAVN forces to prevent the collapse of the Laotian government and deny use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
February 1965: Escalation of Bombing in North Vietnam
In February 1965, following an attack on a U.S. Army base, the U.S. initiated airstrikes against North Vietnam. Operations Rolling Thunder and Arc Light expanded aerial bombardment. The bombing campaign was intended to force North Vietnam to cease support for the VC and to bolster South Vietnamese morale. Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin was on a state visit to North Vietnam when the airstrikes began.
March 1965: US Marines Land in Da Nang
On March 8, 1965, 3,500 U.S. Marines were landed near Da Nang, South Vietnam, marking the beginning of America's ground war. The Marines' initial assignment was defense of Da Nang Air Base. The first deployment was increased to nearly 200,000 by December.
June 1965: South Vietnamese Forces Defeated at the Battle of Đồng Xoài
In June 1965, South Vietnamese forces were defeated at the Battle of Đồng Xoài.
September 1965: Public Opinion on Troop Deployment
In September 1965, six months after the beginning of Operation Rolling Thunder, Gallup, Inc. found 60% of Americans did not believe sending troops was a mistake.
November 1965: Battle of Ia Drang
In November 1965, the US engaged in its first major battle with the PAVN, the Battle of Ia Drang. The operation was the first large scale helicopter air assault by the US, and first to employ Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bombers.
1965: Soviet Military Personnel in Vietnam
From 1965 to 1974, fighting in Vietnam was observed by 11,000 military personnel of the Soviet Armed Forces.
1965: US Department of Defense PAVN/VC Casualty Figures
From 1965 to 1974, the US Department of Defense figure for PAVN/VC killed was 950,765, though officials believed these figures needed to be deflated by 30 percent.
1965: Soviet crews fire missiles at US aircraft
In 1965, Soviet crews fired Soviet-made surface-to-air missiles at US aircraft in Vietnam.
1965: American Intervention
In 1965, the United States began its intervention in Vietnam, marking a significant escalation of the conflict.
1965: Stabilization of South Vietnamese Politics
In mid-1965, South Vietnamese politics began to stabilize with the arrival of prime minister Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and figurehead chief of state, General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu.
1966: Increased US Deployment
By 1966, US troop deployment in Vietnam had dramatically increased to 184,000.
1966: Viet Cong Terrorism
From 1966 to 1969, Viet Cong terrorism was responsible for an estimated over 18,000 targeted killings and civilian deaths.
1966: Organization of the Russell Tribunal
In 1966, the Russell Tribunal was organized by public figures opposed to the war and led by Bertrand Russell, to apply international law precepts to the conflict.
1966: US Engages PAVN/VC Insurgents
In 1966, the US continued tactics, however, the PAVN/VC insurgents remained elusive and demonstrated tactical flexibility. Despite major operations, which the VC and PAVN would evade, the war was characterized by smaller-unit engagements. The VC and PAVN would initiate 90% of large firefights, and thus the PAVN/VC would retain strategic initiative despite overwhelming US force and firepower deployment.
January 1967: 32% of Americans thought the US had made a mistake in sending troops.
In January 1967, a poll indicated that 32% of Americans believed the US had erred in deploying troops to Vietnam.
October 1967: Shifting Public Opinion
By October 1967, polling had not yet found a plurality of Americans who believed that sending troops to Vietnam was a mistake.
November 1967: Westmoreland's Public Relations Drive
In November 1967, prior to Tet, Westmoreland spearheaded a public relations drive for the Johnson administration to bolster flagging public support. In a speech to the National Press Club he said "the end comes into view".
December 1967: Westmoreland Predicts Victory
By December 1967, Westmoreland predicted victory in Vietnam. Johnson did not communicate this change to the media, instead he emphasized continuity. The change in policy depended on matching the North Vietnamese and VC in a contest of attrition and morale. The opponents were locked in an escalation cycle. However Johnson ruled out invasion of North Vietnam due to fears of Chinese or Soviet intervention.
1967: Large-Scale Internal Refugees in South Vietnam
By 1967, the war had generated large-scale internal refugees, 2 million in South Vietnam, with 125,000 people evacuated and rendered homeless during Operation Masher alone, the largest search and destroy operation to that point. Operation Masher had negligible impact however, as the PAVN/VC returned to the province just four months afterwards.
1967: Thiệu Becomes President of South Vietnam
In 1967, Nguyễn Văn Thiệu became president of South Vietnam with Nguyễn Cao Kỳ as his deputy, after rigged elections. Though nominally a civilian government, Kỳ was supposed to maintain real power through a behind-the-scenes military body. However, Thiệu outmanoeuvred and sidelined Kỳ.
1967: Civil rights leaders protest disproportionate casualties.
In 1967, civil rights leaders protested the disproportionate casualties and overrepresentation in hazardous duty experienced by black servicemen, prompting reforms.
1967: PAVN Lures American Forces
In late 1967, the PAVN lured American forces into the hinterlands at Đắk Tô and at the Marine Khe Sanh combat base, where the US fought The Hill Fights. These were part of a diversionary strategy to draw US forces towards the Central Highlands. Preparations were underway for the Tet Offensive, with the intention of Văn Tiến Dũng forces to launch "direct attacks on the American and puppet nerve centers—Saigon, Huế, Danang, all the cities, towns and main bases [...]".
January 1968: The Tet Offensive Begins
In January 1968, the Tet Offensive began, with over 100 cities attacked by over 85,000 VC/PAVN troops, including assaults on military installations, headquarters, and government buildings, including the US Embassy in Saigon. American and South Vietnamese forces were shocked by the scale, intensity and deliberative planning. Most cities were recaptured within weeks, except the former imperial capital Huế, which PAVN/VC troops held on for 26 days. They executed approximately 2,800 unarmed Huế civilians and foreigners they considered spies.
March 1968: Westmoreland Removed from Command
In March 1968, Westmoreland was removed from command and succeeded by his deputy Creighton Abrams, after considering the use of nuclear weapons in a contingency plan codenamed Fracture Jaw and requesting more than 200,000 additional troops, which leaked to the media.
March 31, 1968: Johnson announces he will not run for re-election, offers peace negotiations with Hanoi
On March 31, 1968, President Johnson announced he would not seek re-election, his approval rating has slumped amidst the escalating Vietnam War. He offered to begin peace negotiations with Hanoi, claiming to reduce hostilities while actually increasing military pressure to secure a favorable negotiation outcome.
April 1968: Increased US bombing of Indochina after Johnson's speech
In April 1968, following Johnson's speech, the US significantly increased its bombing campaign in Indochina. The total tonnage of bombs dropped rose to almost 113,000 tons, a substantial increase from the previous high of about 98,000 tons, despite a narrower bombing area in North Vietnam.
May 1968: Peace Talks Begin in Paris
On May 10, 1968, peace talks began between the US and North Vietnam in Paris. Negotiations stagnated for five months, until Johnson halted the bombing of North Vietnam. Hanoi realized it could not achieve a "total victory" and employed a strategy known as "talking while fighting, fighting while talking", in which offensives occurred concurrently with negotiations.
1968: Rolling Thunder Bombing Campaign Ends
Between 1965 and 1968, Operation Rolling Thunder dropped a million tons of missiles, rockets and bombs on North Vietnam. The campaign was intended to force North Vietnam to cease support for the VC by threatening to destroy North Vietnamese air defenses and infrastructure, while also aimed at bolstering South Vietnamese morale.
1968: Release of "The Green Berets"
In 1968, John Wayne's pro-war film "The Green Berets" was released.
1968: My Lai Massacre revelation
In 1968, news of the My Lai massacre surfaced, revealing that a US Army unit had committed atrocities against Vietnamese civilians. This news was a major spark for the anti-war movement.
1968: PAVN/VC recovers and avoids contact after the losses
In 1968, the PAVN/VC recovered from their losses and avoided contact. Abrams conducted operations aimed at disrupting logistics, with better use of firepower and more cooperation with the ARVN.
1968: Vietnam War as major issue in the 1968 United States presidential election
In 1968, the Vietnam War was a central issue during the United States presidential election, which Republican Richard Nixon won, based on his promise of a secret plan to end the conflict.
1968: Ordinary Civilians Targeted
Statistics for 1968–72 suggest "about 80 percent of the terrorist victims were ordinary civilians and only about 20 percent were government officials, policemen, members of the self-defence forces or pacification cadres."
1968: Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất Massacre
The 1968 Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre occurred, where the 2nd Marine Brigade was reported to have killed approximately 70 civilians.
March 1969: Nixon launched Operation Menu
In March 1969 Nixon launched a secret bombing campaign, called Operation Menu, against communist sanctuaries along the Cambodia/Vietnam border. Only five congressional officials were informed.
September 1969: Death of Ho Chi Minh and shift in Hanoi's war strategy
On September 2, 1969, Ho Chi Minh died, leading to a shift in Hanoi's war strategy due to the failure of the Tet Offensive. The Giáp-Chinh faction regained control, favoring conventional warfare and smaller attacks targeting pacification and Vietnamization.
October 1969: Nixon's nuclear weapons order to pressure Soviets
In October 1969, Nixon ordered B-52s with nuclear weapons to the border of Soviet airspace to convince the Soviets of his resolve to end the Vietnam War, according to the madman theory. This was part of a broader effort to achieve détente and nuclear arms reductions, though Soviet support for North Vietnam continued.
October 1969: Vietnam Moratorium Attracts Millions
In October 1969, the Vietnam Moratorium attracted millions of participants, marking a significant anti-war demonstration.
1969: The VC and some PAVN units had reverted to small unit tactics
Between 1969 and 1971 the VC and some PAVN units had reverted to small unit tactics, instead of nationwide offensives.
1969: Variety of weapons used.
By 1969 the US Army had identified 40 rifle/carbine types, 22 machine gun types, 17 types of mortar, 20 recoilless rifle or rocket launcher types, nine types of antitank weapons, and 14 anti-aircraft artillery weapons used by ground troops on all sides.
1969: Viet Cong Terrorism
From 1966 to 1969, Viet Cong terrorism was responsible for an estimated over 18,000 targeted killings and civilian deaths.
1969: American troops withdrew and ARVN took over combat operations
In 1969, American troops were withdrawn from border areas where most of the fighting took place and redeployed along the coast and interior. US casualties in 1970 were less than half of 1969, after being relegated to less active combat. While US forces were redeployed, the ARVN took over combat operations, with casualties double US ones in 1969, and triple in 1970.
1969: Vietnamization Begins
In 1969, President Nixon began the process of "Vietnamization," gradually withdrawing U.S. troops and transferring responsibility for the war effort to the South Vietnamese.
1969: Peak US Deployment and Vietnamization Begins
In 1969, US troop deployment reached 536,000. President Richard Nixon began "Vietnamization", which saw the conflict fought by an expanded ARVN while US forces withdrew.
1969: Decrease of enlisted infantry choices.
In 1969, among the enlisted, only 2.5% chose infantry, reflecting a significant decline in troop morale. At home, desertion rates quadrupled from 1966 levels.
1969: Decline in Morale and Increase in Drug Use Among US Troops
In 1969, field performance was characterized by low morale and poor leadership. Refusal to engage in patrols or carry out orders emerged, with a case of an entire company refusing orders. A practice known as "sand-bagging" started, where units ordered to patrol would go into the country-side, find a site out of view from superiors and radio in false coordinates and reports. Drug usage increased, 30% regularly used marijuana, while a House subcommittee found 10% used heroin.
1969: Green Beret Affair
In 1969, the "Green Beret Affair" emerged, involving the arrest of Special Forces soldiers for the murder of a suspected double agent, further fueling anti-war sentiment in the US.
1969: Aftermath of Tet Offensive
In 1969, the aftermath of the Tet Offensive continued to shape the conflict, influencing strategic decisions and public perception.
March 1970: Sihanouk deposed, Lon Nol demands North Vietnamese troops leave Cambodia
In March 1970, Prince Sihanouk was deposed by his pro-American prime minister Lon Nol, who demanded North Vietnamese troops leave Cambodia or face military action. Nol began rounding up Vietnamese civilians in Cambodia and massacring them.
May 1970: North Vietnam invades Cambodia, US and ARVN launch Cambodian Campaign
In April–May 1970, North Vietnam invaded Cambodia at the request of the Khmer Rouge. In May 1970, US and ARVN forces launched the Cambodian campaign to attack PAVN/VC bases. Nguyen Co Thach recalls: "Nuon Chea has asked for help and we have liberated five provinces of Cambodia in ten days."
May 1970: Kent State University protest and killings
In May 1970, the US incursion into Cambodia sparked U.S. protests as Nixon had promised to deescalate involvement. Students were killed by National Guardsmen at a Kent State University protest, which provoked further outrage, reinvigorating the anti-war movement.
1970: 60% of Americans thought the US had made a mistake in sending troops.
By 1970, public opinion had shifted significantly, with 60% of Americans now believing that the US had made a mistake in sending troops to Vietnam.
1970: Congressmen Witness Conditions at Con Son Prison
During their visit to the Con Son Prison in 1970, congressmen Augustus Hawkins and William R. Anderson observed detainees confined in "tiger cages" or chained to cells, with poor-quality food.
1970: American troops withdrew and ARVN took over combat operations
In 1969, American troops were withdrawn from border areas where most of the fighting took place and redeployed along the coast and interior. US casualties in 1970 were less than half of 1969, after being relegated to less active combat. While US forces were redeployed, the ARVN took over combat operations, with casualties double US ones in 1969, and triple in 1970.
1970: Nixon announced the withdrawal of an additional 150,000 American troops
In 1970, Nixon announced the withdrawal of an additional 150,000 American troops, reducing US numbers to 265,500. By 1970, VC forces were no longer southern-majority, nearly 70% were northerners.
1970: Decrease of enlisted infantry choices.
In 1970, among the enlisted, only 2.5% chose infantry, reflecting a significant decline in troop morale. At home, desertion rates quadrupled from 1966 levels.
1970: Cambodian Coup and US-ARVN Invasion
In 1970, the Cambodian coup d'état resulted in a PAVN invasion and US–ARVN counter-invasion, escalating its civil war.
1970: Kent State University Shooting
In 1970, the fatal shooting of students at Kent State University led to widespread university protests against the war.
February 1971: ARVN launched Operation Lam Son 719
In February 1971, the ARVN was tasked with Operation Lam Son 719, the first major ground operation to attack the Ho Chi Minh Trail, testing the Vietnamization program. The first few days were a success, but momentum slowed after fierce resistance.
March 1971: The 5th Special Forces Group withdrew
In March 1971 the 5th Special Forces Group, the first American unit deployed, withdrew.
1971: End of Chemical Defoliant Use
Between 1961 and 1971, the US ended using chemical defoliants in Vietnam, spraying 20 million gallons of toxic herbicides, like Agent Orange, on 6 million acres of forests and crops.
1971: Thiệu Wins One-Candidate Election
In 1971, Nguyễn Văn Thiệu won a one-candidate election to remain president of South Vietnam.
1971: Decline of ROTC Enrollment.
In 1971, ROTC enrollment decreased from 191,749 in 1966 to 72,459, depriving the US of much-needed military leadership.
1971: PAVN recaptured most border areas
In 1971, a counter-offensive in Operation Chenla II by the PAVN, recaptured most border areas and decimated Nol's forces.
1971: Pentagon Papers Leaked to The New York Times
In 1971, the Pentagon Papers, a secret history of US involvement in Vietnam commissioned by the Department of Defense, were leaked to The New York Times, revealing government deception and sparking public outrage. The Supreme Court ruled the publication legal.
1971: Sapper attack inflicted serious losses on US defenders
In 1971, the decline in morale was demonstrated by the Battle of FSB Mary Ann in which a sapper attack inflicted serious losses on US defenders, with Westmoreland citing dereliction of duty and lax defensive postures as contributing factors.
1971: Continuation of Vietnamization
In 1971, the process of Vietnamization continued, with the gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops and increased responsibility for the war effort given to the South Vietnamese.
February 1972: US troops were reduced to 196,700
In 1971, Australia and New Zealand withdrew their soldiers and US troops were reduced to 196,700, with a deadline to remove another 45,000 troops by February 1972.
October 1972: Kissinger-Tho agreement reached, Thieu demands changes
In October 1972, Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ reached a secret agreement. Thiệu demanded changes to the peace accord upon its discovery. The negotiations became deadlocked when Hanoi demanded changes.
1972: US Troop Withdrawal
By 1972, US troops had mostly withdrawn from Vietnam.
1972: Easter Offensive
In 1972, North Vietnam launched the Easter Offensive, a major military campaign aimed at gaining territory and weakening the South Vietnamese government.
1972: Easter Offensive and Operation Linebacker
In 1972, Vietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive, a conventional PAVN invasion of South Vietnam. US troop withdrawals continued, but American airpower responded, beginning Operation Linebacker, and the offensive was halted. The US Navy initiated Operation Pocket Money in May, an aerial mining campaign in Haiphong Harbor.
January 1973: Paris Peace Accords signed, ending direct U.S. involvement
In January 1973, all US combat activities were suspended and the Paris Peace Accords were signed by Lê Đức Thọ, Henry Kissinger, Nguyễn Thị Bình, and Thiệu on January 27. This ended direct U.S. involvement in the war, created a ceasefire, guaranteed Vietnam's territorial integrity, called for elections, allowed communist troops to remain in the south, and agreed to a POW exchange. All US forces personnel were withdrawn by March.
March 1973: Nixon implies US military intervention, Senate passes Case-Church Amendment
In March 1973, Nixon implied the US would intervene militarily if the North launched a full offensive. Public and congressional reaction was unfavorable, prompting the Senate to pass the Case–Church Amendment to prohibit intervention.
March 1973: Northern leaders developed a new strategy.
In March 1973, Northern leaders developed a new strategy to resume work on the Ho Chi Minh Trail and other logistical structures. Logistics would be upgraded until the North was in a position to launch a massive invasion of the South.
1973: US Bombing in Laos Ends
Between 1964 and 1973, the US dropped two million tons of bombs on Laos, similar to the 2.1 million tons of bombs it dropped on Europe and Asia during World War II, making Laos the most heavily bombed country in history.
1973: End of Conscription
In 1973, conscription, which had been in place since World War II, ended in the United States.
1973: US Withdrawal
In 1973, the United States withdrew from the Vietnam War.
January 1974: PAVN resumed offensive operations.
By January 1974, the PAVN resumed offensive operations when the dry season began, and by January 1974 had recaptured territory lost during the previous dry season.
January 1974: Thiệu announces war restart
In January 1974, after clashes resulting in 55 ARVN soldier deaths, Thiệu announced that the war had restarted and the Peace Accords were no longer in effect.
August 1974: Ford takes over presidency, Congress cuts aid
In August 1974, Gerald Ford became the US president, and Congress reduced financial aid to South Vietnam from $1 billion a year to $700 million.
October 1974: Trà pleads for larger offensive
In October 1974, inspired by the success of the 1973–74 dry season offensive, Trà returned to Hanoi to plead for a larger offensive the next dry season.
December 1974: PAVN forces attack Phước Long
On December 13, 1974, PAVN forces launched an attack on Phước Long province, marking a limited offensive from Cambodia.
1974: South Vietnamese Military Deaths
From 1960 to 1974, the military of South Vietnam suffered an estimated 254,000 killed.
1974: Soviet Military Personnel in Vietnam
From 1965 to 1974, fighting in Vietnam was observed by 11,000 military personnel of the Soviet Armed Forces.
1974: US Department of Defense PAVN/VC Casualty Figures
From 1965 to 1974, the US Department of Defense figure for PAVN/VC killed was 950,765, though officials believed these figures needed to be deflated by 30 percent.
1974: Low of ROTC Enrollment.
In 1974, ROTC enrollment reached a low of 33,220, depriving the US of much-needed military leadership.
1974: Release of "The Girl from Hanoi"
In 1974, the film "The Girl from Hanoi" was released, a film set during Operation Linebacker II, depicting wartime life.
January 1975: Fall of Phuoc Binh
Phuoc Binh fell on January 6, 1975. In response, Ford requested funds from Congress to assist the South, but the request was denied, demoralizing the South Vietnamese elite.
March 1975: Dũng launches Campaign 275
On March 10, 1975, Dũng initiated Campaign 275, a limited offensive into the Central Highlands supported by tanks and heavy artillery, targeting Ban Ma Thuột.
1975: Vietnamese Government Military Deaths
According to Vietnamese government figures, ending in 1975, there were 849,018 confirmed military deaths on the PAVN/VC side from 1955–75, including battle deaths of Vietnamese soldiers in the Laotian and Cambodian Civil Wars.
1975: South Vietnam has significant assets but struggle to use them
At the start of 1975, South Vietnam possessed three times the artillery and twice the tanks and armored vehicles of the PAVN, but heightened oil prices and rushed Vietnamization hampered their operational use due to lack of maintenance and spare parts.
1975: Migration and Relocation
Between 1975 and 1980, more than 1 million northerners migrated south to regions formerly in the Republic of Vietnam, while around 750,000 to over 1 million southerners were moved to mountainous forested areas as part of the New Economic Zones program.
1975: Fall of Phnom Penh
By 1975, the North Vietnamese had lost influence over the Khmer Rouge and Phnom Penh, Cambodia's capital, fell to the Khmer Rouge.
1975: US Senate Subcommittee Casualty Estimate
In 1975, a US Senate subcommittee estimated 1.4 million South Vietnamese civilian casualties, including 415,000 deaths.
1975: Killings on the Road to Tuy Hòa
In 1975, during the North Vietnamese Spring Offensive, 155,000 refugees fleeing were reported killed or abducted on the road to Tuy Hòa.
1975: Indochina Refugee Crisis Begins
In 1975, the Indochina refugee crisis began, with over 3 million people leaving Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
1975: Pathet Lao Overthrows Monarchy
In 1975, the Pathet Lao overthrew the monarchy of Laos, establishing the Lao People's Democratic Republic.
1975: Thiệu's Presidency Ends
Nguyễn Văn Thiệu remained president of South Vietnam until 1975.
1975: Projected massive invasion of the South
Northern leaders expected the ceasefire terms would favor their side, and Logistics would be upgraded until the North was in a position to launch a massive invasion of the South, projected for the 1975–76 dry season.
July 1976: North and South Vietnam Merge
In July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
1976: Reunification of Vietnam
In 1976, North and South Vietnam were reunified.
1977: Carter Pardons Draft Evaders
In 1977, President Jimmy Carter granted an unconditional pardon to Vietnam draft evaders with Proclamation 4483.
1978: Release of "The Deer Hunter"
In 1978, Michael Cimino's "The Deer Hunter" was released.
1978: South Vietnamese Sent to Re-education Camps
In 1978, South Vietnamese were sent to re-education camps where they endured torture, starvation, and disease while forced to perform hard labor. Estimates of the number of people involved varied. Le Monde estimated "50,000 to 80,000", The Washington Post estimated "150,000 to 200,000", and Agence France Presse from Hanoi estimated "300,000".
1978: Vietnam Invades Democratic Kampuchea
In 1978, after failed attempts to negotiate following Khmer Rouge taking Phu Quoc and Tho Chu, and the belief they were responsible for the disappearance of 500 Vietnamese natives on Tho Chu, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea and ousted the Khmer Rouge, leading to the Cambodian–Vietnamese War.
1978: Cambodian-Vietnamese War Begins
In 1978, the Cambodian–Vietnamese War began following the Khmer Rouge's genocide in Cambodia.
1979: Vietnamese Government Deaths and Missing
According to Vietnamese government figures, from 1945 to 1979, there were an estimated 1.1 million dead and 300,000 missing.
1979: Release of "Apocalypse Now"
In 1979, Francis Ford Coppola's "Apocalypse Now" was released.
1980: Gabriel García Márquez visits South Vietnam
In 1980, Gabriel García Márquez described South Vietnam as a "False paradise" when he visited.
1987: Release of "Full Metal Jacket" and "Good Morning, Vietnam"
In 1987, Stanley Kubrick's "Full Metal Jacket" and "Good Morning, Vietnam" were released.
1989: Release of "Casualties of War" and "Born on the Fourth of July"
In 1989, "Casualties of War" and "Born on the Fourth of July" were released.
1991: Russia acknowledges Soviet troop presence in Vietnam
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia acknowledged that the USSR had stationed up to 3,000 troops in Vietnam.
1998: Resettlement of Refugees in the US
Between 1975 and 1998, an estimated 1.2 million refugees from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries resettled in the US.
2002: End of Casualty Estimate Period
By 2002, one source estimated up to 3.8 million violent war deaths in Vietnam from 1955 to 2002. A demographic study calculated 791,000–1,141,000 war-related deaths for all of Vietnam, including military and civilians.
2005: Declassification of NSA Publication
In 2005, an NSA publication was declassified revealing that there was no attack on August 4, 1964, during the Gulf of Tonkin incident.
2006: Vietnamese Government Estimates of Dioxin Poisoning Victims
As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimated there were over 4,000,000 victims of dioxin poisoning in Vietnam.
2012: US and Vietnam Cooperate on Agent Orange Cleanup
In 2012, the US and Vietnam cooperated in cleaning toxic chemicals on Da Nang International Airport, marking the first time Washington had been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam.
2013: Annual Payments to Veterans and Families
As of 2013, the US government pays Vietnam veterans and their families more than $22 billion annually in war-related claims.
2018: Vietnam Treats Contaminated Soil
In 2018, Vietnam treated 150,000 cubic meters of contaminated soil affected by Agent Orange.
2021: US Military Personnel Still Missing
As of 2021, of the 58,281 U.S. military personnel who were killed, 1,584 were still listed as missing.
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