History of Equal Rights Amendment in Timeline
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is a proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution designed to explicitly prohibit sex discrimination. Written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman, it was first introduced to Congress in 1923. The ERA gained momentum during the women's movement in the 1960s and was approved by both the House and Senate in the early 1970s, sending it to state legislatures for ratification. Congress set a deadline for ratification, later extended to 1982, but the ERA fell three states short of the required 38 for ratification by that deadline. Despite this, efforts to ratify the ERA continue.
September 25, 1921: National Woman's Party Announces ERA Campaign
On September 25, 1921, the National Woman's Party announced its plans to campaign for an amendment to the U.S. Constitution guaranteeing women equal rights with men.
October 1921: ERA Introduced to Congress by Senator Charles Curtis
In October 1921, U.S. senator Charles Curtis introduced the ERA to Congress for the first time.
December 1923: ERA First Introduced in Congress
In December 1923, the Equal Rights Amendment, written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman, was first introduced in Congress.
1923: ERA Introduced and Reintroduced in Congress
Following its introduction in 1923, the Equal Rights Amendment was reintroduced in each subsequent Congress, but made little progress.
1923: Alice Paul Revises Proposed Amendment
In 1923, at Seneca Falls, New York, Alice Paul revised the proposed amendment to ensure men and women were treated equally regardless of sex.
1923: Opposition to ERA Led by Mary Anderson
In 1923, the opposition to the ERA was led by Mary Anderson and the Women's Bureau.
1924: Debate on Women's Equality in The Forum
In 1924, The Forum hosted a debate between Doris Stevens and Alice Hamilton concerning the different perspectives on the proposed amendment.
1939: Supreme Court Rules on Amendment Deadlines
In 1939, the Supreme Court ruled in Coleman v. Miller that a proposed amendment remains valid if there is no deadline for ratification and that Congress has the discretion to determine if the required number of states have ratified the amendment.
1940: Republican Party Includes Support of ERA in Platform
In 1940, the Republican Party included support of the ERA in its platform.
1943: Alice Paul Further Revises the Amendment
In 1943, Alice Paul further revised the amendment to reflect the wording of the Fifteenth and Nineteenth Amendments.
1944: Democrats Include ERA in Platform
At the 1944 Democratic National Convention, the Democrats included the ERA in their platform, a hotly contested change.
1946: ERA Defeated in the Senate
In 1946, the ERA was defeated in the Senate by a vote of 38 to 35, failing to receive the required two-thirds supermajority.
1948: Emanuel Celler Refuses to Consider ERA
Between 1948 and 1970, chairman Emanuel Celler of the House Judiciary Committee, refused to consider the ERA in the House of Representatives.
1950: ERA Passed by Senate with Hayden Rider
In 1950, the ERA was passed by the Senate with the "Hayden rider" provision to keep special protections for women.
1953: ERA Passed by Senate with Hayden Rider
In 1953, the ERA was passed by the Senate with the "Hayden rider" provision to keep special protections for women.
1958: Eisenhower Asks Congress to Pass the ERA
In 1958, President Dwight Eisenhower asked a joint session of Congress to pass the Equal Rights Amendment, marking the first time a president showed such support.
October 21, 1960: Kennedy Announces Support of ERA
On October 21, 1960, presidential candidate John F. Kennedy announced his support of the ERA in a letter to the chairman of the National Woman's Party.
1960: Proposal to Endorse ERA Rejected
At the Democratic National Convention in 1960, a proposal to endorse the ERA was rejected.
1963: Equal Pay Act of 1963 Passed
In 1963, the Equal Pay Act of 1963 was passed, banning sex discrimination in wages in a number of professions.
1963: Passage of the Equal Pay Act
In 1963, the Equal Pay Act was passed. Opponents of the ERA argued that men and women were already equal enough with the passage of this act and the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
1964: Civil Rights Act Banned Workplace Discrimination Based on Sex
In 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned workplace discrimination based on sex due to the lobbying of Alice Paul and Coretta Scott King and the political influence of Representative Martha Griffiths of Michigan.
1964: Passage of the Civil Rights Act
In 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed. Opponents of the ERA argued that men and women were already equal enough with the passage of this act and the Equal Pay Act of 1963.
June 1966: Formation of the National Organization for Women (NOW)
In June 1966, at the Third National Conference on the Status of Women in Washington, D.C., Betty Friedan and a group of activists formed the National Organization for Women (NOW).
1967: NOW Endorses the Equal Rights Amendment
In 1967, at the urging of Alice Paul, NOW endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment.
1969: Shirley Chisholm's Speech "Equal Rights for Women"
In 1969, newly elected representative Shirley Chisholm of New York gave her famous speech "Equal Rights for Women" on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives.
February 1970: NOW Pickets U.S. Senate for ERA Hearing
In February 1970, NOW picketed the United States Senate, disrupting hearings on lowering the voting age and demanding a hearing on the Equal Rights Amendment, ultimately securing a meeting with senators to discuss the ERA.
August 10, 1970: Shirley Chisholm's "For the Equal Rights Amendment" Speech
On August 10, 1970, New York representative Shirley Chisholm delivered a speech in Washington, D.C., titled "For the Equal Rights Amendment," advocating for the ERA as a remedy for widespread sex discrimination and arguing that it would benefit all people by ensuring laws protecting workers applied to both men and women.
1970: Emanuel Celler Refuses to Consider ERA
Between 1948 and 1970, chairman Emanuel Celler of the House Judiciary Committee, refused to consider the ERA in the House of Representatives.
1970: Congressional Hearings Begin on the ERA
In 1970, congressional hearings began on the ERA, marking a significant step in the legislative process.
October 12, 1971: House Adopts Griffiths's ERA Resolution
On October 12, 1971, the House adopted Griffiths's H.J.Res. 208 for the ERA with a vote of 354-24.
1971: ERA Reintroduced by Martha Griffiths and Approved by the House
In 1971, Representative Martha Griffiths reintroduced the Equal Rights Amendment, and it was approved by the U.S. House of Representatives.
March 22, 1972: Senate Adopts ERA Resolution
On March 22, 1972, the Senate adopted Griffiths's joint resolution for the ERA by a vote of 84-8.
1972: ERA Introduced in Congressional Session
Between 1921 and 1972, the ERA was introduced in every congressional session.
1972: Pro-ERA Efforts Led by NOW and ERAmerica
Between 1972 and 1982, The National Organization for Women (NOW) and ERAmerica, led the pro-ERA efforts.
1972: 22 States Ratify the ERA
During 1972, a total of 22 state legislatures ratified the amendment.
1972: Schlafly Starts STOP ERA Campaign
In 1972, Phyllis Schlafly began her campaign to stop the ERA. Public polls showed support for the amendment was widely popular at this time.
1972: Initial ERA Text
In 1972, the ERA had a specific text, which was the same text used when it passed through House committees in 1983.
1972: ERA Approved by the Senate
In 1972, the U.S. Senate approved the Equal Rights Amendment, submitting it to state legislatures for ratification.
1972: Supreme Court Extends Equal Protection to Sex-Based Discrimination
In 1972, the United States Supreme Court extended equal protection to sex-based discrimination, interpreting the Fourteenth Amendment.
1972: Section 1 of the Version Passed by Congress
The text revised by Alice Paul in 1943 would later become Section 1 of the version passed by Congress in 1972.
1972: League of Women Voters Opposed ERA
Until 1972, the League of Women Voters opposed the Equal Rights Amendment, fearing the loss of protective labor legislation.
1973: Thirty States Ratify the ERA
By 1973, thirty states had ratified the amendment. After 1973, the number of ratifying states slowed to a trickle.
1973: Ruth Bader Ginsburg Summarizes Supporting Argument for ERA
In 1973, future Supreme Court justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg summarized a supporting argument for the ERA in the American Bar Association Journal.
1973: Additional States Ratify the ERA in Early 1973
In early 1973, eight more states joined in ratifying the ERA.
1973: AFL-CIO Opposition to ERA
Until 1973, the AFL-CIO was among the opposition to the ERA.
1974: Slowing Momentum for ERA Ratification
Between 1974 and 1977, only five states approved the ERA.
1975: ERA Struggles and Phyllis Schlafly's Influence
By 1975, many believed that the ERA would have been ratified if not for Phyllis Schlafly's early and effective efforts to organize potential opponents.
1976: ERA Struggles and Phyllis Schlafly's Influence
By 1976, many believed that the ERA would have been ratified if not for Phyllis Schlafly's early and effective efforts to organize potential opponents.
1977: Slowing Momentum for ERA Ratification
Between 1974 and 1977, only five states approved the ERA.
July 9, 1978: National March in Washington, D.C.
On July 9, 1978, NOW and other organizations hosted a national march in Washington, D.C., which garnered over 100,000 supporters.
1978: Congress Adopts Holtzman's H.J.Res. 638
In 1978, the 95th Congress adopted H.J.Res. 638, by Representative Elizabeth Holtzman of New York, which purported to extend the ERA's ratification deadline to June 30, 1982.
1978: Purported Extension of ERA Deadline Contested
The purported extension of ERA's ratification deadline was vigorously contested in 1978.
March 1, 1979: South Dakota "Sunsets" ERA Ratification
On March 1, 1979, the South Dakota Legislature adopted Senate Joint Resolution No. 2, stipulating that South Dakota's 1973 ERA ratification would be "sunsetted" as of the original deadline, March 22, 1979.
March 13, 1979: South Dakota's Sunset Resolution Published in Congressional Record
On March 13, 1979, South Dakota's 1979 sunset joint resolution was published verbatim in the Congressional Record.
March 22, 1979: Original Deadline Approaching for ERA Ratification
As the original March 22, 1979 deadline approached, ERA advocates became worried.
March 31, 1979: South Dakota Rescinds ERA Ratification
Because thirty-eight states failed to ratify the amendment by March 31, 1979, the South Dakota Legislature rescinded its ratification of the ERA.
1979: Original Deadline Approaching for ERA Ratification
In 1979, as the original 1979 deadline approached, the 95th Congress adopted H.J.Res. 638, which purported to extend the ERA's ratification deadline to June 30, 1982.
1979: First Deadline for ERA Ratification
In 1979, the initial seven-year deadline set by Congress for the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment passed, with the ERA still three states short of the required 38.
June 18, 1980: Illinois House Fails to Ratify ERA
On June 18, 1980, a resolution in the Illinois House of Representatives resulted in a vote of 102–71 in favor of the ERA, but failed due to internal parliamentary rules requiring a three-fifths majority.
1980: Republican Party Ends Support for ERA
In 1980, the Republican Party platform was amended to end its support for the ERA, marking a significant shift in the political landscape surrounding the amendment.
1980: Republican Party Platform Includes Support of ERA
Until 1980, the Republican Party included support of the ERA in its platform renewing the plank every four years.
December 23, 1981: Federal Court Rules ERA Deadline Invalid
On December 23, 1981, a federal district court ruled in Idaho v. Freeman that the extension of the ERA ratification deadline to June 30, 1982, was invalid, asserting that the ERA had expired on March 22, 1979.
January 25, 1982: Supreme Court Stays Lower Court Decision
On January 25, 1982, the U.S. Supreme Court stayed the federal district court's decision in Idaho v. Freeman, which had invalidated the ERA ratification deadline extension.
June 6, 1982: NOW Sponsored Marches in States That Had Not Passed ERA
On June 6, 1982, NOW sponsored marches in states that had not passed the ERA including Florida, Illinois, North Carolina, and Oklahoma.
June 21, 1982: Florida House Approves ERA
On June 21, 1982, the ERA was approved by the Florida House of Representatives, but was defeated in the Florida Senate.
June 30, 1982: Purported Extended Deadline for ERA Ratification
June 30, 1982, was the purported extended ERA ratification deadline.
July 1982: Jazz Funeral Held for ERA in New Orleans
In July 1982, a jazz funeral for the ERA was held in New Orleans to mourn the failure of the amendment.
October 4, 1982: Supreme Court Vacates District Court Decision
On October 4, 1982, the Supreme Court vacated the federal district court decision in Idaho v. Freeman in the case of NOW v. Idaho, declaring controversies moot due to the ERA failing to receive the required ratifications by the extended deadline.
1982: ERA Reintroduction in Congress
In 1982, the ERA was reintroduced in Congress and has been reintroduced in every session since.
1982: Extended Deadline for ERA Ratification Expires
In 1982, the extended deadline for the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment passed, with the ERA remaining three states short of the required 38 for ratification.
1983: ERA Fails in House Vote
In 1983, the ERA passed through House committees but failed to achieve the necessary two-thirds vote on the House floor, marking the last time the ERA received a floor vote in either house of Congress.
1992: Clinton elected president
In 1992, Bill Clinton was elected president with feminist support.
1992: Twenty-seventh Amendment Ratified
In 1992, the Constitution's Twenty-seventh Amendment was ratified after pending before state legislatures since 1789.
1996: Clinton reelected president
In 1996, Bill Clinton was reelected president with feminist support.
June 21, 2009: NOW Supports Additional State Ratifications
On June 21, 2009, the National Organization for Women decided to support both efforts to obtain additional state ratifications for the 1972 ERA and any strategy to submit a fresh-start ERA to the states for ratification.
January 6, 2011: Press Conference Advocating ERA Adoption
On January 6, 2011, Senator Menendez, along with Representatives Maloney, Nadler, and Moore, held a press conference advocating for the Equal Rights Amendment's adoption.
March 8, 2011: Legislation Introduced to Remove Ratification Deadline
On March 8, 2011, Representative Tammy Baldwin introduced legislation (H.J. Res. 47) to remove the congressionally imposed deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment. The resolution was referred to the Subcommittee on the Constitution, but it failed to receive a vote.
March 22, 2012: Senator Cardin Introduces Senate Joint Resolution
On March 22, 2012, Senator Benjamin L. Cardin introduced (S.J. Res. 39) to remove the congressionally imposed deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment. The resolution was referred to the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, but a vote was never brought.
January 2013: Resolutions Die in Committee
In January 2013, both Representative Baldwin's and Senator Cardin's resolutions died in committee when the 112th Congress ended, as no vote was brought on either resolution.
February 24, 2013: New Mexico House Adopts Memorial on ERA Deadline
On February 24, 2013, the New Mexico House of Representatives adopted House Memorial No. 7, asking that the congressionally imposed deadline for ERA ratification be removed.
March 5, 2013: ERA Reintroduced by Senator Menendez
On March 5, 2013, the ERA was reintroduced by Senator Menendez as S.J. Res. 10.
April 8, 2013: Congressional Research Service Issues Report on Three-State Strategy
On April 8, 2013, the Congressional Research Service issued a report entitled "The Proposed Equal Rights Amendment: Contemporary Ratification Issues", stating that the three-state strategy approach was viable.
August 2013: Carolyn Maloney Sponsors ERA in the House
In August 2013, Representative Carolyn Maloney sponsored the ERA in the House of Representatives, continuing her support since the 105th Congress.
2013: "New ERA" Introduced with Additional Sentence
In 2013, the "New ERA" sponsored by Representative Carolyn B. Maloney, added an additional sentence to the original text: "Women shall have equal rights in the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction."
2013: Congressional Research Service Issues Report
In 2013, the Library of Congress's Congressional Research Service issued a report saying that ratification deadlines are a political question.
January 6, 2014: House Memorial No. 7 Received by the U.S. Senate
On January 6, 2014, House Memorial No. 7 was officially received by the U.S. Senate, designated as "POM-175", and referred to the Senate's Committee on the Judiciary.
March 22, 2017: Nevada Legislature Ratifies ERA
On March 22, 2017, the Nevada Legislature became the first state in 40 years to ratify the ERA.
April 2018: Illinois Senate Ratifies ERA
In April 2018, Illinois Senate ratified the ERA with a 43-12 vote.
May 30, 2018: Illinois Ratifies ERA
Illinois state lawmakers ratified the ERA on May 30, 2018, with a 72–45 vote in the Illinois House following a 43–12 vote in the Illinois Senate in April 2018.
January 30, 2019: Legislation Introduced to Remove Ratification Deadline
On January 30, 2019, Representative Jackie Speier introduced legislation (H.J.Res. 38) in a renewed attempt to remove the deadline to ratify the amendment.
April 30, 2019: Subcommittee Hears Testimony on ERA Deadline Extension
On April 30, 2019, the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Civil Liberties heard testimony on the amendment and extension of the deadline.
November 8, 2019: Speier Re-introduces Bill to Remove Deadline
On November 8, 2019, Representative Jackie Speier re-introduced the bill as H.J.Res. 79 to attempt to remove the deadline to ratify the amendment with 214 co-sponsors.
December 16, 2019: States Sue to Prevent ERA Ratification
On December 16, 2019, Alabama, Louisiana, and South Dakota sued to prevent further ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment, arguing that the ratification process was illegal.
January 6, 2020: DOJ Issues Opinion on ERA Ratification
On January 6, 2020, the Department of Justice's Office of Legal Counsel issued an opinion stating that Congress had the constitutional authority to impose a deadline on the ERA's ratification and that the ERA Resolution is no longer pending before the States, because the deadline has expired.
January 7, 2020: Complaint Filed Against Archivist of the United States
On January 7, 2020, Equal Means Equal, The Yellow Roses and Katherine Weitbrecht filed a complaint against the Archivist of the United States, seeking to have him count the three most recently ratifying states and certify the ERA.
January 15, 2020: Virginia Senate Approves ERA
On January 15, 2020, the Virginia Senate voted 26–14 to approve the amendment and forward it to the House of Delegates.
February 13, 2020: House Passes H.J. Res. 79
On February 13, 2020, the House passed H.J. Res. 79 by a vote of 232–183. The bill then expired without Senate action.
February 2020: Ginsburg Discusses Challenges of Ratification
In February 2020, Ruth Bader Ginsburg noted the challenge that "if you count a latecomer on the plus side, how can you disregard states that said 'we've changed our minds?'" at Georgetown University.
February 27, 2020: States Voluntarily Dismiss Lawsuit
On February 27, 2020, Alabama, Louisiana, and South Dakota entered into a joint stipulation and voluntary dismissal with the Archivist of the United States, incorporating the DOJ's opinion that the Archivist would not certify the adoption of the Equal Rights Amendment.
March 2, 2020: Federal Court Grants Dismissal
On March 2, 2020, Federal District Court Judge L. Scott Coogler entered an order regarding the Joint Stipulation and Plaintiff's Voluntary Dismissal, granting the dismissal without prejudice.
May 7, 2020: DOJ Files Motion to Dismiss
On May 7, 2020, the DOJ filed a motion to dismiss, claiming the states do not have standing to bring the case to trial as they have to show any "concrete injury", nor that the case was ripe for review.
August 6, 2020: Motion to Dismiss Granted
On August 6, 2020, Judge Denise Casper granted the Archivist's motion to dismiss the complaint, ruling that the plaintiffs did not have standing to sue.
August 21, 2020: Plaintiffs Appeal Decision
On August 21, 2020, the plaintiffs appealed the decision to dismiss their complaint to the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit.
September 2, 2020: Plaintiffs Ask Supreme Court to Hear Case
On September 2, 2020, the plaintiffs asked the Supreme Court to hear their case regarding the certification of the ERA.
2020: Global Equal Rights Clauses
In 2020, Southern Legal Council found clauses officially declaring equal rights / non-discrimination on the basis of sex in the constitutions of 168 countries.
March 5, 2021: Federal Judge Rules Ratification Period Expired
On March 5, 2021, federal judge Rudolph Contreras ruled that the ratification period for the ERA "expired long ago" and that three states' recent ratifications came too late.
March 17, 2021: House Passes Joint Resolution to Remove Deadline
On March 17, 2021, the House passed a joint resolution (H.J.Res. 17) to remove the deadline for ratification by a 222–204 vote. The companion bill failed, however, as the Senate took no action on it.
March 19, 2021: North Dakota Clarifies ERA Ratification
On March 19, 2021, North Dakota state lawmakers adopted Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 4010 to retroactively clarify that North Dakota's 1975 ratification of the ERA was valid only through "11:59 p.m. on March 22, 1979".
April 20, 2021: North Dakota Resolution Received by U.S. Senate
On April 20, 2021, the North Dakota resolution clarifying its ERA ratification was formally received by the U.S. Senate, designated as "POM-10", and referred to the Senate's Judiciary Committee.
May 3, 2021: Plaintiff States Appeal Ruling
On May 3, 2021, the plaintiff states appealed the ruling that the ratification period had expired to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit.
June 29, 2021: First Circuit Affirmed District Court's Decision
On June 29, 2021, the First Circuit affirmed the District Court's decision that "the plaintiffs have not met their burden at the pleading stage with respect to those federal constitutional requirements; we affirm the order dismissing their suit for lack of standing."
January 4, 2022: En Banc Rehearing Request Denied
On January 4, 2022, the en banc rehearing request was denied.
February 2022: Virginia Withdraws from Lawsuit
In February 2022, Virginia withdrew from the lawsuit.
September 28, 2022: Oral Arguments Held
On September 28, 2022, oral arguments were held before a panel of judges Wilkins, Rao and Childs.
February 28, 2023: Panel Rules Plaintiffs Failed to Prove ERA Deadline Invalid
On February 28, 2023, the panel ruled that the plaintiffs failed to prove the ERA deadline invalid.
May 19, 2023: Minnesota Legislature Adopts Resolution Memorializing Congress
On May 19, 2023, the Minnesota Legislature adopted a resolution memorializing Congress to declare the ERA fully ratified by the states as the 28th Amendment.
June 23, 2023: Complaint Filed Against Selective Service System
On June 23, 2023, Vikram Valame filed a complaint against the Selective Service System, arguing that the ERA had been validly ratified and that Congress's deadline was unconstitutional.
2023: Congressional Caucus for the ERA Founded
In 2023, the Congressional Caucus for the Equal Rights Amendment was founded by House Democrats.
January 20, 2024: Motion to Dismiss Granted, Appeal Filed
On January 20, 2024, Judge Nathanael M. Cousins granted the defendants' motion to dismiss, ruling that "no 28th Amendment appears in the Constitution." Valame filed a notice of appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals on the same day.
February 2024: ABA Supports ERA Implementation
In February 2024, the American Bar Association (ABA) passed resolution 601, supporting implementation of the ERA, urging that a deadline for ratification of an amendment is not consistent with Article V of the Constitution and that states are not permitted to rescind prior ratifications.
December 15, 2024: House Democrats Urge Biden to Certify ERA
On December 15, 2024, over 120 House Democrats, led by Representatives Cori Bush and Ayanna Pressley, sent a letter to President Joe Biden, arguing that the ERA had been successfully ratified and urging him to direct the Archivist to certify it as part of the Constitution.
January 17, 2025: President Biden Declares ERA as Law of the Land
On January 17, 2025, President Biden declared that the Equal Rights Amendment was the law of the land. However, the National Archives does not intend to certify the amendment as part of the Constitution.
