The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of predominantly African American pilots and airmen who served in World War II as part of the US Army Air Forces. They comprised the 332nd Fighter Group and the 477th Bombardment Group, including not only pilots but also navigators, bombardiers, mechanics, and other support staff. They distinguished themselves with an excellent combat record, earning numerous accolades, including three Distinguished Unit Citations, for their skill in protecting American bombers from enemy fighters.
1917: Rejection of Black Aerial Observers
In 1917, attempts by African American men to become aerial observers in the U.S. military were rejected due to racial discrimination.
August 1927: Birth of Buford A. Johnson
Buford A. Johnson, aircraft crew chief for the 332nd pilots, was born in August 1927.
1929: C. Alfred Anderson Begins Flying
C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson, the chief civilian instructor at the Tuskegee flight program, began flying in 1929. He would play a crucial role in the training of numerous pilots, including taking First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt on a flight.
December 1938: Civilian Pilot Training Program Unveiled
The Civilian Pilot Training Program (CPTP) was launched in late December 1938, offering pilot training opportunities to civilians, including African Americans. Tuskegee University began its participation the next year, opening the doors for its involvement with the Tuskegee Airmen program.
April 1939: Funding for Black Pilot Training Approved
In April 1939, Congress passed Public Law 18, which included an amendment allocating funds for the training of African American pilots. This was a significant victory for civil rights advocates.
1939: Tuskegee University Joins CPTP
Tuskegee University joined the Civilian Pilot Training Program in 1939, a key step in its subsequent role in training the Tuskegee Airmen.
1940: Limited Number of Black Pilots Reported
In 1940, the U.S. Census Bureau reported a very low number of African American pilots in the nation, reflecting the historical barriers to their participation in aviation.
March 1941: Training of Enlisted Men Begins
Training for enlisted men in aircraft ground support began at Chanute Field in March 1941. These men would later form the core of other black squadrons.
March 1941: Eleanor Roosevelt Visits Tuskegee Flight Program
First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt inspected the Tuskegee flight program and flew with Chief Alfred "Chief" Anderson in March 1941, bringing positive publicity and recognition to the program.
March 1941: 99th Pursuit Squadron Activated
The 99th Pursuit Squadron was officially activated at Chanute Field, Illinois, in March 1941. However, it would still take time for the unit to have pilots assigned to it.
June 1941: 99th Pursuit Squadron Moves to Tuskegee
The 99th Pursuit Squadron was transferred to Tuskegee, Alabama in June 1941, establishing the central location for the training of African American pilots.
July 1941: First Aviation Cadet Class Begins Training
The first class of aviation cadets began their preflight training at Tuskegee Institute in July 1941, marking the formal start of the Tuskegee Airmen training program.
July 1941: Transfer to Alabama Bases
In July 1941, the enlisted men training at Chanute Field were transferred to bases in Alabama to support the growing Tuskegee Airmen program.
1941: Formation of the 99th Pursuit Squadron
Under pressure, the War Department and Army Air Corps formed the 99th Pursuit Squadron in 1941, marking the first all-black flying unit in the U.S. military.
1941: Start of Tuskegee Airmen Flight Surgeon Service
The service of flight surgeons with the Tuskegee Airmen began in 1941, providing crucial medical support to the pilots throughout their training and combat operations.
1941: Start of Tuskegee Airmen Training Program
The Tuskegee Airmen training program began in 1941.
January 1942: Major James Ellison Transferred
Major James Ellison, the first commander of Tuskegee Army Air Field, was transferred in January 1942, allegedly due to his assertion of the authority of black military police over white civilians.
May 1942: 99th Pursuit Squadron Renamed
In May 1942, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was renamed the 99th Fighter Squadron.
1942: Tuskegee Airfield Personnel Increase
By mid-1942, the number of personnel stationed at Tuskegee significantly increased, exceeding initial projections, reflecting the growth of the training program.
1942: Willie Rogers Drafted into the Army
Willie Rogers was drafted into the Army in 1942, joining the 100th Air Engineer Squad and later serving with the Red Tail Angels.
January 1943: Willie Rogers Wounded in Action
Willie Rogers was wounded in action in Italy in January 1943 during his service with the Tuskegee Airmen.
April 1943: 99th Ready for Combat
By April 1943, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was finally deemed ready for combat duty, signifying the culmination of their training and the beginning of their active participation in World War II.
April 1943: 99th Pursuit Squadron's Deployment
In April 1943, the 99th Pursuit Squadron, the first all-black flying squadron, was deployed overseas to North Africa. This marked a significant milestone in the history of African American involvement in military aviation.
May 1943: 616th Bombardment Squadron Established
The 616th Bombardment Squadron, part of the all-white 477th Bombardment Group, was established in May 1943.
May 1943: Air Assault on Pantelleria Begins
The air assault on Pantelleria, codenamed Operation Corkscrew, began in May 1943, as part of the preparations for the Allied invasion of Sicily. The 99th's first combat mission was to attack this small island to clear sea lanes.
June 1943: Distinguished Unit Citations Earned
In June 1943, the 99th Fighter Squadron began earning their Distinguished Unit Citations (DUC) for operations over Sicily.
July 1943: 616th Bombardment Squadron Activated
The 616th Bombardment Squadron was activated in July 1943.
July 1943: Allied Invasion of Sicily
The Allied invasion of Sicily took place in July 1943, following the air assault on Pantelleria, which the 99th Fighter Squadron participated in, marking the start of their combat contributions to the war effort.
July 1943: Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. Joins Army Air Corps
Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. began his military career in July 1943, joining the Army Air Corps at Tuskegee.
August 1943: 616th Bombardment Squadron Inactivated
The 616th Bombardment Squadron was inactivated in August 1943.
September 1943: Cadet Washouts Increase
By September 1943, the number of washed-out cadets at the base had increased to 286, with few of them employed.
1943: Black Physicians Admitted to Aviation Medicine School
In 1943, two black physicians were admitted to the U.S. Army School of Aviation Medicine at Randolph Field, one of the earliest integrated courses in the Army. This reflects progress towards integration and recognition of the medical personnel supporting the Tuskegee Airmen.
1943: Capt. Dickson's Ring Inscribed
A ring inscribed from Capt. Dickson's wife to him and dated 1943 was found with his remains.
January 1944: 477th Bombardment Group Reactivated
The 477th Bombardment Group was reactivated as an all-Black unit in January 1944.
February 1944: 332nd Fighter Group Sent Overseas
In February 1944, the all-black 332nd Fighter Group, comprised of the 100th, 301st, and 302nd fighter squadrons, was deployed overseas.
March 1944: 332nd Fighter Group's Initial Combat Missions
The 332nd Fighter Group began its initial combat missions in March 1944, equipped with Bell P-39 Airacobras. This marked their entry into active combat operations.
May 1944: 332nd Fighter Group Joins 99th Squadron in Italy
In May 1944, the 99th Fighter Squadron was assigned to the 332nd Fighter Group. The squadrons, under Colonel Davis's command, moved to mainland Italy. On June 6th, they joined the 99th at Ramitelli Airfield near Campomarino. They escorted bombing raids into several European countries from this location.
May 1944: Distinguished Unit Citation Earned for Monastery Hill
The squadron received a Distinguished Unit Citation (DUC) in May 1944 for their actions at Monastery Hill near Cassino.
June 1944: Colonel Davis's Leadership in Protecting Bombers
Colonel Benjamin O. Davis's skillful leadership on June 9, 1944, minimized bomber losses despite facing numerous enemy fighters, earning him the Distinguished Flying Cross.
June 1944: 332nd Fighter Group Begins Bomber Escort Missions
The 332nd Fighter Group, comprised of multiple black fighter squadrons, started flying heavy bomber escort missions in June 1944, further demonstrating their capabilities and expanding their role in the war.
July 1944: Heavy Losses During Air Battle
In July 1944, a significant air battle resulted in the loss of 15 B-17 bombers under 332nd escort, highlighting the intensity of the aerial combat.
July 1944: 99th Fighter Squadron Joins 332nd Fighter Group
In July 1944, the 99th Fighter Squadron officially joined the 332nd Fighter Group, consolidating the all-black fighter squadrons under a single command and bringing the total number of fighter squadrons in the group to four.
July 1944: Documented Bomber Loss Under 332nd Escort
A mission report from July 26, 1944, documented the loss of a B-24 bomber in the target area despite being under the escort of the 332nd Fighter Group.
July 1944: Introduction of the P-51 Mustang
In July 1944, the 332nd Fighter Group transitioned to using the North American P-51 Mustang, the aircraft they would become most closely associated with throughout the war. The distinct red markings on the tails of their P-47s gave rise to the nickname "Red Tails".
September 1944: Start of Period with No Bomber Losses
In September 1944, the 332nd Fighter Group began a remarkable six-month period during which they did not lose a single bomber under their escort.
October 1944: Lt. Fred L. Brewer Jr. MIA
In October 1944, 2nd Lt. Fred L. Brewer Jr. went missing in action after his P-51C Mustang crashed during a mission over Regensburg, Germany.
November 1944: 477th Bombardment Group Expansion
The 477th Bombardment Group was slated for expansion, eventually to include four squadrons operating B-25 Mitchell bombers. It was expected to be ready for deployment by November 1944.
December 1944: Capt. Lawrence E. Dickson Goes Missing
On December 23, 1944, Captain Lawrence E. Dickson went missing during a mission while escorting a reconnaissance flight.
1944: Formation of 477th Bombardment Group and the Freeman Field Mutiny
In 1944, the 477th Bombardment Group was established to expand the Tuskegee experiment, allowing Black aviators to serve on bomber crews. This involved training pilots, many of whom were veterans of the Tuskegee fighter group, on B-25 bombers. During this time, several African-American officers were arrested and charged with mutiny after entering an all-white officers' club in Indiana.
March 1945: Tuskegee Airmen Intercept German Jets
On March 24, 1945, the Tuskegee Airmen, led by Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, escorted B-17 bombers on a long mission into Germany. They encountered and shot down German jets, including Me 262s, over Berlin. Pilots Brantley, Lane, and Brown each downed a jet. This earned the 332nd Fighter Group a Distinguished Unit Citation.
March 1945: "Never Lost a Bomber" Myth Begins
A March 24, 1945 article by the Chicago Defender asserted that no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had been lost to enemy fire, creating the "never lost a bomber" myth.
March 1945: 477th Bombardment Group Transfers to Freeman Field
In March 1945, the 477th Bombardment Group was moved to Freeman Field, Indiana, where racial tensions began to rise due to the integration of Black and white personnel.
March 1945: Distinguished Unit Citation Earned for German Jet Intercept
In March 1945, the 99th Fighter Squadron earned another Distinguished Unit Citation (DUC) for successfully engaging German jet aircraft.
March 1945: End of Period with No Bomber Losses
In March 1945, the six-month period ended during which the 332nd Fighter Group did not lose a single bomber under their escort.
April 1945: Freeman Field Mutiny Begins
In April 1945, Black officers from the 477th were denied entry to the whites-only officer's club at Freeman Field, marking the start of the Freeman Field Mutiny.
June 1945: 99th Fighter Squadron Reassigned, 477th Redesignated
In June 1945, following the Freeman Field Mutiny, several squadrons were disbanded, and the 99th Fighter Squadron was reassigned to the 477th, leading to its redesignation as the 477th Composite Group.
July 1945: Command Change and Staff Replacement within 477th
In July 1945, Colonel Robert Selway was removed from command of the 477th Composite Group, and Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr. took his place. Subsequently, the white staff was replaced with African American officers.
October 1945: 618th Bombardment Squadron Disbanded
The 618th Bombardment Squadron was disbanded in October 1945.
1945: Coleman Young's Involvement in the Freeman Field Mutiny
In 1945, Coleman Young, a lieutenant in the 477th Bombardment group, participated in the Freeman Field Mutiny.
March 1946: 477th Composite Group Moves to Lockbourne Field
In March 1946, the 477th Composite Group moved to Lockbourne Field.
1946: End of Tuskegee Airmen Training Program
By 1946, the Tuskegee training program had concluded.
July 1947: 477th Composite Group Disbanded, 332nd Fighter Wing Formed
The remaining squadrons of the 477th Composite Group were disbanded in July 1947. The unit was then reorganized as the 332nd Fighter Wing.
1948: End of Military Segregation
In 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the U.S. military.
May 1949: Integration of Black Airmen into USAF
In May 1949, following President Truman's Executive Order 9981, the Air Force mandated the integration of black airmen into formerly all-white units based on qualifications.
1949: 332nd Wins Gunnery Meet
In 1949, the 332nd Fighter Wing achieved a perfect score and secured first place in the conventional fighter class at the U.S. Continental Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas.
1949: End of Tuskegee Airmen Flight Surgeon Service
The dedicated service of flight surgeons with the Tuskegee Airmen concluded in 1949, marking the end of an era in which these medical professionals played an essential role in supporting the program.
1969: James Commands Wheelus Air Base
In 1969, Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. was given command of Wheelus Air Base, located near Tripoli.
1975: General James Becomes First African-American Four-Star General
In 1975, Daniel "Chappie" James Jr., a former instructor and fighter pilot with the Tuskegee Airmen, became the first African-American four-star general in the USAF.
1979: Williams Becomes First African American on Commonwealth Court
In 1979, Robert W. Williams Jr. was elected to the Commonwealth Court of Pennsylvania, becoming the first African American to serve on that appellate court.
1985: Williams Runs for District Attorney
In 1985, Robert W. Williams Jr. resigned from the Commonwealth Court to run for District Attorney of Philadelphia County, becoming the first African American to be a city-wide candidate for that position.
1994: Young's Mayoralty Ends
Coleman Young concluded his time as mayor of Detroit in 1994, after serving for twenty years.
June 1998: "Red Tail Dining Facility" Dedicated to Tuskegee Airmen
In June 1998, the Ohio Army and Air National Guard opened and dedicated the "Red Tail Dining Facility" at Rickenbacker ANG base to the Tuskegee Airmen.
1998: Reactivation of the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group
In 1998, the 332nd was reactivated as the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group and later became part of the 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing.
2004: Initial Research Challenges "Never Lost a Bomber" Myth
In 2004, research began to challenge the "never lost a bomber" myth, although initial findings were disputed.
2005: Tuskegee Airmen Visit Balad Air Base
In 2005, a group of Tuskegee Airmen visited Balad Air Base in Iraq to connect with active-duty airmen serving in the reactivated 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing.
2006: Further Research on Bomber Losses
Further research in 2006 began to reveal documented instances of bomber losses under Tuskegee Airmen escort.
2006: Commemorative Postage Stamp Initiative
In 2006, Congressmen Adam Schiff and William Lacy Clay Jr. led an initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp honoring the Tuskegee Airmen.
March 2007: Confirmation and Contradictions in Bomber Loss Records
In March 2007, conflicting reports emerged regarding bomber losses under 332nd escort, with some records confirming losses while others highlighted a six-month period without losses.
March 2007: Tuskegee Airmen Receive Congressional Gold Medal
On March 29, 2007, the Tuskegee Airmen were collectively awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.
2007: Documented Bomber Losses Confirmed
By 2007, documented instances of bomber losses under Tuskegee Airmen escort were confirmed.
2007: Tuskegee Airmen Awarded Congressional Gold Medal
In 2007, surviving Tuskegee Airmen were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal by President George W. Bush.
August 2008: Camp Creek Parkway Renaming
In August 2008, a section of Camp Creek Parkway (State Route 6) in Georgia, near Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport, was renamed to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.
December 2008: Tuskegee Airmen Invited to Obama's Inauguration
In December 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen received invitations to attend the inauguration of Barack Obama, the first African-American president, in January 2009.
2008: Tuskegee Airmen Inducted into Air & Space Hall of Fame
The Tuskegee Airmen were inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum in 2008.
2008: Unknown Number of Surviving Tuskegee Airmen and Personnel
As of 2008, the exact number of surviving Tuskegee Airmen and ground personnel was unknown.
January 2009: Tuskegee Airmen Attend Obama's Inauguration
In January 2009, over 180 Tuskegee Airmen attended Barack Obama's presidential inauguration.
July 2009: Kimberly Anyadike's Transcontinental Flight
Inspired by the Tuskegee Airmen, 15-year-old Kimberly Anyadike became the youngest African-American female to complete a transcontinental flight across the United States in July 2009, accompanied by Tuskegee Airman Levi Thornhill.
2010: Tuskegee Airmen Honored in Rose Parade
The 2010 Rose Parade featured a float dedicated to the Tuskegee Airmen, highlighting their contributions and winning the Mayor's Trophy. A memorial was also erected at the Walterboro Army Airfield in South Carolina.
January 2012: MTA Depot Renamed, "Red Tails" Movie Released
In January 2012, an MTA bus depot in New York City was renamed the Tuskegee Airmen Depot. The same year, George Lucas released "Red Tails", a film about the Tuskegee Airmen.
2012: Benjamin O. Davis High School Named
In 2012, Aldine Independent School District in Texas named a high school after Benjamin O. Davis Jr., honoring the Tuskegee Airmen commander.
July 2013: Definitive Study on Bomber Losses Published
In July 2013, a definitive study documented 27 bomber losses under 332nd Fighter Group escort, dispelling the "never lost a bomber" myth.
November 2013: South Road Renamed Tuskegee Airmen Way
On November 14, 2013, the New York City Council officially renamed South Road in Jamaica, Queens, to Tuskegee Airmen Way.
2013: Willie Rogers Receives Congressional Gold Medal
Willie Rogers received his Congressional Gold Medal in 2013 after his involvement with the Tuskegee Airmen was confirmed.
February 6, 2014: I-80 Section Named "Tuskegee Airman Memorial Highway"
A 17-mile stretch of Interstate 80 in California, between Vacaville and Davis, was designated as the "Tuskegee Airman Memorial Highway" on February 6, 2014.
December 2014: I-75 in Michigan Named "Tuskegee Airmen Memorial Highway"
In December 2014, a portion of Interstate 75 in Michigan was named the "Tuskegee Airmen Memorial Highway".
November 2016: Death of Willie Rogers
Willie Rogers, one of the last surviving Tuskegee Airmen, died in November 2016 at age 101.
April 2017: Death of Buford A. Johnson
Buford A. Johnson, aircraft crew chief for the 332nd pilots, passed away in April 2017.
July 2018: Remains of Capt. Dickson Identified
In July 2018, the remains of Capt. Lawrence E. Dickson were identified and confirmed, bringing closure to his family after he went missing in action in 1944.
August 2019: Fourteen Surviving Tuskegee Airmen Attend Convention
In August 2019, fourteen surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen attended the annual convention.
September 2019: T-7A Red Hawk Naming
On September 16, 2019, the US Air Force named the T-X program's winning aircraft the "T-7A Red Hawk", paying tribute to the Tuskegee Airmen and their signature red-tailed planes.
2019: Charles McGee Promoted to Brigadier General
At 100 years old, Colonel Charles McGee was given an honorary promotion to the rank of Brigadier General in 2019.
2019: Death of Lt. Col. Robert J. Friend
Lt. Col. Robert J. Friend, one of the remaining Tuskegee Airmen, passed away in 2019 at the age of 99.
February 2020: McGee Participates in Super Bowl Coin Flip
Charles McGee, a Tuskegee Airman, participated in the Super Bowl coin flip ceremony in February 2020.
April 2021: NASCAR Honors Tuskegee Airmen
In April 2021, NASCAR driver Erik Jones paid tribute to the Tuskegee Airmen with a P-51 Mustang inspired paint scheme at Talladega Superspeedway. Despite leading several laps, a crash on the final lap resulted in a 27th place finish.
2021: Commemorative Quarter Released
In 2021, the United States Mint released a quarter commemorating the Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site, featuring an airman and P-51 Mustangs.
2022: Comprehensive Study of 332d Fighter Group Published
In 2022, a comprehensive study revealed significant differences between the 332d Fighter Group and other P-51 groups in the Fifteenth Air Force, showing the 332d's superior performance in protecting bombers.
January 1, 2023: Three Surviving Tuskegee Airmen
As of January 1, 2023, only three of the original Tuskegee Airmen remained.
July 2023: 75th Anniversary of Military Desegregation and Tuskegee Airmen Commemoration
A ceremony at Joint Base Andrews in Maryland in July 2023 marked the 75th anniversary of the US military's desegregation, honoring the Tuskegee Airmen. A PT-17 Stearman training aircraft was also inducted into the National Museum of the Air Force.
July 2023: Robert W. Williams Jr. Turns 100
In July 2023, Robert W. Williams Jr., a Tuskegee Airman who served as a navigator/bombardier in the 477th Bombardment Group, celebrated his 100th birthday, making him one of the last surviving members of the group.
July 2023: Remains of Lt. Fred L. Brewer Jr. Identified and Laid to Rest
In July 2023, the remains of 2nd Lt. Fred L. Brewer Jr., missing since October 1944, were identified by the DPAA and buried with honors in North Carolina.
March 28, 2024: Tuskegee Airmen Commemoration Day Officially Recognized
On March 28, 2024, President Biden issued a letter to formally acknowledge Tuskegee Airmen Commemoration Day, an annual celebration typically held on the fourth Thursday of March.
January 2025: Tuskegee Airmen Training Materials Suspended
In January 2025, Air Force training materials featuring the Tuskegee Airmen were removed due to the Trump administration's anti-DEI initiatives.