History of Xenophobia in Timeline
Xenophobia is the aversion to or fear of individuals or things perceived as foreign or strange. Rooted in the perception of conflict between in-groups and out-groups, it manifests as suspicion, the desire to eliminate the presence of the perceived foreign group, and the fear of losing national, ethnic, or racial identity. This fear often leads to prejudice and discrimination and can incite hostility, violence, and discriminatory policies against immigrants and minority groups. Xenophobia is driven by factors such as societal instability, economic competition, and the need for group cohesion. It's a complex social phenomenon with historical and contemporary implications, impacting social relations and global politics.
10/1959: Approval of PP 10/1959
In 10/1959, President Sukarno approved PP 10/1959 that forced Chinese Indonesians to close their businesses in rural areas and relocate into urban areas.
June 1900: Boxer Fighters Converge on Beijing
In June 1900, Boxer fighters, believing themselves invulnerable, converged on Beijing with the slogan "Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners."
August 1900: Eight-Nation Alliance Invades China
In August 1900, an Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China to lift the siege of the Legation Quarter during the Boxer Rebellion.
1900: Boxer Rebellion Exploits White Peril Fears
In 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, the crude fear of the white peril was exploited, contributing to a mass sounding board for anti-imperialist sentiments.
1901: Boxer Protocol Imposed
In 1901, the Boxer Protocol was imposed on China, mandating a massive indemnity payment to the Allied powers.
1901: Immigration Restriction Act in Australia
In 1901, the Immigration Restriction Act (White Australia policy) effectively barred people of non-European descent from immigrating to Australia.
1905: Emergence of Xenophobia during Panama Canal Construction
Starting in 1905, xenophobia emerged when the United States brought in laborers from the Caribbean to build the Panama Canal, leading to cultural anxieties among the local elite.
1910: Surge in Xenophobia and Nationalism during the Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution of 1910-20 saw a surge in xenophobia and nationalism based on "mestizaje".
March 1911: Massacre of Chinese in Torreón, Mexico
On 15 March 1911, Maderista soldiers massacred 303 Chinese and five Japanese people in Torreón, Mexico, driven by class antagonism and xenophobia.
1913: Immigrants Regulation Act in South Africa
In 1913, South Africa passed the Immigrants Regulation Act, effectively halting Indian immigration.
1914: Panama Canal Construction Ends
In 1914, construction on the Panama Canal ended.
1917: Nationalism and xenophobia in the Russian Civil War
During the civil war era (1917–1922) both the Bolsheviks and the Whites employed nationalism and xenophobia as weapons to delegitimise the opposition.
1917: Pogroms Accompanying the Russian Revolution
Many pogroms accompanied the Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War, an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000.
1922: Nationalism and xenophobia in the Russian Civil War
During the civil war era (1917–1922) both the Bolsheviks and the Whites employed nationalism and xenophobia as weapons to delegitimise the opposition.
1924: Township Franchise Ordinance
In 1924, the Township Franchise Ordinance was intended to deprive Indians of municipal franchise in South Africa.
1933: Ascent of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party
In 1933, the ascent of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany marked a culmination of increased anti-Semitism and racism in the country's political discourse after World War I. The Nazi Party's racial policy and the Nuremberg Race Laws against Jews and other non-Aryans represented the most explicit racist policies in twentieth century Europe.
1936: Increased use of the word "racism"
After 1936, the term "racism" became more widespread in the United Kingdom, though "race hatred" was used earlier.
1940: Election of Arnulfo Arias as President of Panama
In 1940, Arnulfo Arias, an "overtly nationalist and anti-imperialist", was elected president of Panama.
1949: Dismantling of White Australia policies
Between 1949 and 1966, the Menzies and Holt governments effectively dismantled the White Australia policies.
1949: Communist Takeover in China
In 1949, Mary C. Wright argues that a combination of Chinese nationalism and xenophobia had a major impact on the Chinese worldview during the Communist takeover.
1965: Separation of Singapore from Malaysia
In 1965, racial tension between Malay Muslims and Chinese was a major factor in the separation of Singapore from Malaysia.
1965: Race Relations Act in the UK
In 1965, the Race Relations Act was passed in the UK, specifically prohibiting racial discrimination.
1966: Dismantling of White Australia policies
Between 1949 and 1966, the Menzies and Holt governments effectively dismantled the White Australia policies.
1973: Race disregarded as component for immigration
In 1973, the Whitlam government passed laws to ensure that race would be totally disregarded as a component for immigration to Australia.
1980: Abolition of slavery in Mauritania
Despite its abolition in 1980, slavery persists in Mauritania, affecting descendants of black Africans.
1981: Japan Ratifies UN Convention on Refugees
From 1981, when Japan ratified the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, to 2002, only 305 persons were recognized as refugees.
1991: Deportation of Ethnic Nepalis from Bhutan
Starting in 1991, Bhutan is said to have deported between 10,000 and 100,000 ethnic Nepalis (Lhotshampa).
1994: Attacks on foreign nationals in Johannesburg
In 1994 and 1995, gangs of armed youth destroyed the homes of foreign nationals living in Johannesburg.
1995: Attacks on foreign nationals in Johannesburg
In 1994 and 1995, gangs of armed youth destroyed the homes of foreign nationals living in Johannesburg.
1996: Increase in negative attitudes in Russia
In 1996, surveys indicated a rise in negative attitudes among Russians toward various outgroups.
1997: Xenophobia and Political Struggle
In 1997, a review article defined xenophobia as an element of political struggle over resource allocation by the state and society.
1998: Indonesia Riots Target Chinese
In 1998, riots in Indonesia over food prices devolved into anti-Chinese attacks.
1999: Low Refugee Acceptance Rate in Japan
In 1999, Japan accepted only 16 refugees, while the United States took in 85,010, highlighting a disparity in refugee resettlement.
September 2000: US State Department alleges Sudanese government support of slavery
In September 2000, the U.S. State Department alleged that the Sudanese government supported slavery and its military actions resulted in numerous deaths due to religious beliefs.
October 2000: Blood Libel Allegations in Egyptian Newspaper
In October 2000, columnist Adel Hammoda alleged in the Egyptian newspaper al-Ahram that Jews use the blood of non-Jewish children to make Matza, reviving the blood libel myth.
September 2001: Discriminatory Attitudes Following 9/11 Attacks
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, discriminatory attitudes emerged.
2001: Palestinian Support for September 11 Attacks
In 2001, anti-US and anti-Israeli sentiment led some Palestinians to support the September 11 attacks in New York.
2001: Increased Racism and Discrimination Against Muslims and Sikhs Post-9/11
Since the 2001 terrorist attacks on the U.S. and the subsequent War on Terror, Muslim and Sikh Canadians have faced increased racism and discrimination.
2002: Low Number of Refugees Recognized by Japan
From 1981, when Japan ratified the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, to 2002, only 305 persons were recognized as refugees.
August 2003: Hamas Official's Statement in Al-Risala
In August 2003, senior Hamas official Dr Abd Al-Aziz Al-Rantisi wrote in the Hamas newspaper Al-Risala regarding anti-US and anti-Israeli sentiments.
2004: Rising Islamic Antisemitism in France
In 2004, France experienced rising levels of Islamic antisemitism that were publicized globally.
2004: Increase in negative attitudes in Russia
In 2004, surveys indicated a rise in negative attitudes among Russians toward various outgroups.
2004: U.S. State Department Report on Discrimination in Israel
In 2004, the U.S. State Department reported that the Israeli government had done "little to reduce institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against the country's Arab citizens."
2004: Xenophobic violence in Abidjan
In 2004, the Young Patriots of Abidjan incited violence against foreign nationals, leading to rapes, beatings, and murders of persons of European and Lebanese descent.
December 2005: Cronulla riots
In December 2005, the Cronulla riots, a series of race riots and mob violence, occurred in Sydney due to strained relations between Anglo-Celtic and Lebanese Australians.
2005: U.S. State Department Report on Human Rights in Israel
In 2005, a US Department of State report on Israel highlighted problems including "institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against the country's Arab citizens."
2005: UN Report on Racism in Japan
In 2005, a United Nations report expressed concerns about racism and xenophobia in Japan, particularly affecting national minorities, Latin Americans of Japanese descent, and foreigners from poor countries.
October 2006: Niger announces deportation of Arabs
In October 2006, Niger announced the deportation of "Diffa Arabs" to Chad, but later suspended the decision.
2006: Antisemitic views in Sweden
In 2006, a government study estimated that 5% of adult Swedes and 39% of adult Muslims held systematic antisemitic views.
2006: Rising Antisemitism in French Schools
In 2006, rising levels of antisemitism were recorded in French schools, relating to tensions between children of North African Muslim immigrants and North African Jewish children.
May 2007: "Security Pacts" signed to evict Romani people in Italy
In May 2007, the mayors of Rome and Milan signed "Security Pacts" that "envisaged the forced eviction of up to 10,000 Romani people".
2007: ACRI Report on Increasing Anti-Arab Racism in Israel
In 2007, a report by the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI) suggested that anti-Arab racism was increasing in the country.
2007: Jewish Community Petitions for Asylum in the United States
In 2007, over 7,000 members of the French Jewish community petitioned for asylum in the United States, citing antisemitism in France.
May 2008: Poll Reveals Desire to Expel Gypsies from Italy
According to a May 2008 poll, 68% of Italians wanted to see all of the country's approximately 150,000 Gypsies, many of them Italian citizens, expelled. The survey, published as mobs in Naples burned down Gypsy camps that month, revealed that the majority also wanted all Gypsy camps in Italy to be demolished.
2008: Xenophobic violence breaks out in South Africa
Following the riots and murders of other Africans, violence again broke out in 2008.
2008: Pew Research Center Survey on Views of Jews
In 2008, a Pew Research Center survey found that negative views concerning Jews were most common in predominantly Arab nations, with high percentages of unfavorable opinions in Lebanon, Egypt, and Jordan.
2008: Xenophobic attacks in Johannesburg
In 2008, a widely documented spate of xenophobic attacks occurred in Johannesburg, resulting in displacement, looting, and deaths.
2008: Attacks Against Romani in Hungary
In 2008, attacks took place against Romani in Hungary, resulting in deaths and injuries.
2008: Political Rhetoric and Plans to Expel Roma from Italy
In 2008, national and local leaders in Italy engaged in rhetoric claiming the rise in crime was due to Roma immigration and declared plans to expel Roma from settlements and deport illegal immigrants.
2008: Anti-Semitic Incidents Reported in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, antisemitic incidents, from verbal abuse to violence, are reported, allegedly connected with Islamic youth, mostly boys of Moroccan descent.
2008: Increase in Antisemitic Incidents in France
In the first half of 2009, an estimated 631 recorded acts of antisemitism took place in France, which was more than in the whole of 2008.
May 2009: Indian students protest racist attacks in Melbourne
On 30 May 2009, Indian students protested against racist attacks in Melbourne, leading to government intervention and UN concern.
July 2009: Deportation of Breslov Hasidim from Jordan
In July 2009, six Breslov Hasidim were deported from Jordan after attempting to enter the country from Egypt to visit the tomb of Aaron near Petra due to perceived difficulties for visible Jews entering from Israel.
August 2009: Hamas Refusal of Holocaust Education
In August 2009, Hamas refused to allow Palestinian children to learn about the Holocaust, calling it "a lie invented by the Zionists" and referred to Holocaust education as a "war crime".
December 2009: French Interior Minister on Antisemitism
In December 2009, the French Interior Minister Hortefeux, speaking to the World Jewish Congress, described acts of antisemitism as "a poison to our republic" and announced the appointment of a special coordinator to fight racism and antisemitism.
2009: Increase in Antisemitic Attacks in Belgium
In 2009, Belgium experienced a 100% increase in antisemitic attacks, often perpetrated by young males of Middle Eastern immigrant background. The Belgian city of Antwerp, experienced a surge in antisemitic violence.
2009: Poll Reveals Unfavorable Views of Islam
In 2009, a poll by Maclean's revealed that 28% of Canadians viewed Islam favorably and 45% believed it encourages violence.
2009: Attacks on Jews in Malmö
In 2009, attacks on Jews in Malmö totaled 79, about twice as many as the previous year, according to police statistics.
2009: Attacks Against Romani in Hungary
In 2009, further attacks took place against Romani in Hungary, resulting in deaths and injuries.
March 2010: Harassment of Jews in Malmö
In March 2010, it was reported that Jews in Malmö were being harassed and physically attacked, leading some families to emigrate to Israel.
December 2010: Travel advisory for Sweden
In December 2010, the Simon Wiesenthal Center issued a travel advisory for Sweden due to increased harassment of Jewish citizens in Malmö.
2010: Increased Xenophobia in South Korean Social Media
After 2010, xenophobia became increasingly prevalent in South Korean social media, scapegoating dark-skinned migrants.
2010: Auschwitz Survivor's Statement on Antisemitism
In 2010, Auschwitz survivor Bloeme Evers-Emden stated that "The antisemitism now is even worse than before the Holocaust. The antisemitism has become more violent. Now they are threatening to kill us."
2010: Report on Discrimination in the United States
In 2010, a report by a network of US-based organizations stated that discrimination permeates all aspects of life in the United States, extending to all communities of color.
2010: Criticism of Minority Treatment in Israel
In 2010, former Likud MK Moshe Arens criticized the treatment of minorities in Israel, stating that they do not have the full rights or obligations of citizenship.
2010: Antisemitism Common Among Norwegian Muslims
In 2010, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation revealed that antisemitism was common among Norwegian Muslims, with teachers reporting students praising Hitler, expressing Jew-hate, and finding legitimacy for it in the Quran.
2010: World Values Survey on Immigrants in South Korea
In the 2010-2014 World Values Survey, 44.2% of South Koreans reported they would not want an immigrant or foreign worker as a neighbor.
2012: Survey on Beliefs of Turks in Germany
According to a 2012 survey, 18% of Turks in Germany believe that Jews are inferior human beings.
2012: Demonization as a Two-Way Street in Israel
In 2012, Khaled Diab of The Guardian wrote that demonization was a two-way street, with Palestinians in Israel reportedly holding negative stereotypes of Israelis.
2012: Increase in negative attitudes in Russia
In 2012, surveys indicated a rise in negative attitudes among Russians toward various outgroups.
2012: Anti-Slavic and Anti-Romani Website Established in the Netherlands
In 2012, the Dutch right-wing Party for Freedom established an anti-Slavic (predominantly anti-Polish) and anti-Romani website, leading to hate speech and racial prejudice.
2013: Venezuela Ranked Most Racist Country in the Americas
In 2013, a Swedish academic study stated that Venezuela was the most racist country in the Americas.
2014: World Values Survey on Immigrants in South Korea
In the 2010-2014 World Values Survey, 44.2% of South Koreans reported they would not want an immigrant or foreign worker as a neighbor.
2014: Studies suggest racism on the rise in the UK
Studies published in 2014 suggested that racism was on the rise in the UK, with over a third of those polled admitting racial prejudice.
April 2015: Xenophobic attacks against Zimbabweans in South Africa
In April 2015, xenophobic attacks occurred in South Africa, primarily against Zimbabwean migrants, following remarks by Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu.
November 2015: Increase in Hate Crimes Against Muslims in Ontario
In November 2015, following ISIS's claim of responsibility for the Paris attacks, a rise in hate crimes targeting Muslims in Ontario was reported.
2015: Study mapping racial bias towards black people in Europe concludes
A study that ran from 2002 to 2015 mapped the countries in Europe with the highest incidents of racial bias towards black people, based on data from 288,076 white Europeans. The strongest bias was found in Czech Republic, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Malta, Moldova, Bulgaria, Italy, Slovakia, and Portugal.
2015: Report on Discrimination Experiences by Young People in the Netherlands
According to a 2015 report by the OECD and EU Commission, 37% of young people born in the Netherlands with immigrant parents say they had experienced discrimination in their lives.
2015: Xenophobic violence breaks out in South Africa
Following the riots and murders of other Africans, violence again broke out in 2015.
2015: Studies suggest racism on the rise in the UK
Studies published in 2015 suggested that racism was on the rise in the UK, with over a third of those polled admitting racial prejudice.
2016: Decrease in hate crimes in Russia
In 2016, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty reported a decrease in hate crimes due to increased pressure on far-right groups.
2016: Gallup International Poll on Religious, Racial, and Cultural Superiority
In 2016, a Gallup International poll showed roughly 74% of Palestinian respondents agreeing there was religious superiority, 78% agreeing there was racial superiority, and 76% agreeing there was cultural superiority.
2016: Russian disapproval of accepting Syrian refugees
In 2016, a poll revealed that 79% of Russian respondents disapproved of accepting Syrian refugees.
2016: Survey on Discriminating Attitudes after 9/11
In 2016, a survey indicated that discriminating attitudes may be a residual effect of the September 11, 2001 attacks.
2016: Survey Reveals Anti-Refugee Sentiment in Thailand
In 2016, an Amnesty International survey indicated that 74% of surveyed Thais do not believe people should be able to take refuge in other countries to escape war or persecution.
2017: Chatham House Poll on Muslim Immigration
In 2017, a Chatham House poll showed that on average 55% of over 10,000 people in 10 European countries agreed that all further migration from Muslim-majority countries should be stopped.
2017: University of Oslo Report on Antisemitic Violence in Western Europe
In 2017, a report by the University of Oslo Center for Research on Extremism tentatively suggests that "individuals of Muslim background stand out among perpetrators of antisemitic violence in Western Europe".
2017: China's Treatment of Uyghur Muslims
Since 2017, China has faced international criticism for detaining approximately one million Muslims, mainly Uyghurs, in detention camps without legal process.
2017: Surveys Show Discrimination Against Foreigners
Surveys conducted in 2017 and 2019 showed that 40 to nearly 50% of foreigners surveyed in Japan experienced some form of discrimination.
2018: Hate Speech Case
In 2018, a hate speech case involving xenophobic attitudes toward Chinese people was put to court the following year.
2018: Pew Research Center Poll on Anti-Refugee Sentiment in Israel
In 2018, a poll by Pew Research Center suggested widespread anti-refugee sentiment among surveyed Israelis and also noted a long history of discrimination towards Palestinians.
June 2019: Venezuelan Refugee Crisis and Xenophobia in Colombia
By June 2019, 1.3 million Venezuelan refugees were in Colombia, leading to increased reports of xenophobia, discrimination, and violence against migrants.
2019: Ipsos Poll Suggests Lower Sympathy for Refugees in Japan
A 2019 Ipsos poll suggested that Japanese respondents had a relatively lower sympathy for refugees compared to most other countries in the survey.
2019: Xenophobic violence breaks out in South Africa
Following the riots and murders of other Africans from 2008 and 2015, violence again broke out in 2019.
2019: Pew Research Center Survey on Discrimination
In 2019, a Pew Research Center survey suggested that 76% of Black and Asian respondents had experienced some form of discrimination.
2019: UK ranked least racist in EU survey
In 2019, an EU survey ranked the UK as the least racist among 12 Western European countries surveyed.
2019: Surveys Show Discrimination Against Foreigners
Surveys conducted in 2017 and 2019 showed that 40 to nearly 50% of foreigners surveyed in Japan experienced some form of discrimination.
April 2020: Abuse of Migrant Workers in Kuwait and Resulting Bans
In April 2020, an actress on Kuwaiti TV called for migrants to be expelled, amidst reports of exploitation. Sierra Leone, Indonesia, and Nepal banned their citizens from domestic work in Kuwait due to abuse reports.
2020: COVID-19 Blamed on China, Leading to Attacks on Chinese Americans
In 2020, the COVID-19 epidemic was often blamed on China, leading to xenophobic attacks on Chinese Americans.
